Observations of occurrence and daily activity patterns of ungulates in the Endau Rompin Landscape, peninsular Malaysia

Article Sidebar

PDF/A HTML
Published: Feb 26, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3519.10.2.11245-11253
Keywords:
Bayesian single-season occupancy, by-catch, camera trap, daily activity pattern, Endau Rompin Landscape, occurrence, peninsular Malaysia, ungulate.

Main Article Content

Win Sim Tan
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7859-9197
Norazmi bin Amir Hamzah
Johor National Parks Corporation, Aras 1, Bangunan Dato' Mohamad Saleh Perang, Kota Iskandar, 79576 Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8441-7916
Salman Saaban
Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Peninsular Malaysia, Km 10, Jalan Cheras, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Nurul Aida Zawakhir
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8461-9809
Yugees Rao
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2357-6112
Norolhuda Jamaluddin
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0845-9468
Francis Cheong
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Norhidayati binti Khalid
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9207-9582
Nur Iadiah Mohd Saat
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0497-5206
Eka Nadia binti Zaidee Ee
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2269-4069
Azwan bin Hamdan
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9111-8802
Mei Mei Chow
Penang Green Council, Tingkat 46, KOMTAR, 10503 Penang, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4487-5012
Chee Pheng Low
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3721-9180
Mufeng Voon
Sarawak Forestry Corporation, Lot 218, Jalan Tapang, Kota Sentosa, 93250 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0568-1186
Song Horng Liang
Pertubuhan Pelingdung Alam Malaysia, B-06-06 Blok Casa Green Condominium, Jalan Casa Green, 43200 Cheras, Selangor, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3813-2247
Martin Tyson
Wildlife Conservation Society, 132 Bloomingdale Ave #2, Saranac Lake, NY 12983, United States of America.
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3440-2898
Melvin Terry Gumal
Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7872-5907

Abstract

Camera trap data was used to study occurrence and daily activity patterns in the Endau Rompin Landscape of peninsular Malaysia during 2011, 2013 and 2015 to estimate Malayan Tiger Panthera tigris jacksoni population densities.  By-catch data were also collected for seven ungulate species: Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, Bearded Pig Sus barbatus, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Greater Mousedeer Tragulus napu, Lesser Mousedeer Tragulus kanchil, Malayan Tapir Tapirus indicus and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor.  Of these, Bayesian single-season occupancy analysis suggested that Barking Deer were the most widespread and Mousedeer spp. the least widespread during the study period.  Bearded Pig, Malayan Tapir and Wild Boar were recorded in more than half of the camera trap area (Sambar Deer was excluded due to small sample size).  Daily activity patterns based on independent captures in 2015 suggest that Barking Deer, Bearded Pig and Wild Boar are mostly diurnal, mousedeer species are crepuscular and Malayan Tapir strongly nocturnal. 

 

Article Details

Issue
Vol. 10 No. 2 (2018)
Section
Communications

Authors own the copyright to the articles published in JoTT.  This is indicated explicitly in each publication. The authors grant permission to the publisher Wildlife Information Liaison Development (WILD) Society to publish the article in the Journal of Threatened Taxa. The authors recognize WILD as the original publisher, and to sell hard copies of the Journal and article to any buyer. JoTT is registered under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY), which allows authors to retain copyright ownership.  Under this license the authors allow anyone to download, cite, use the data, modify, reprint, copy and distribute provided the authors and source of publication are credited through appropriate citations (e.g., Son et al. (2016). Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the southeastern Truong Son Mountains, Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(7): 8953–8969. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2785.8.7.8953-8969). Users of the data do not require specific permission from the authors or the publisher.

Author Biographies

Win Sim Tan, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Win Sim Tan is a senior researcher for WCS - Malaysia Program. He has an honours degree in Wildlife Ecology from University of Wisconsin – Madison. He has been involved in a tiger conservation project in the Endau Rompin landscape of Johor and Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia since 2013.

Norazmi bin Amir Hamzah, Johor National Parks Corporation, Aras 1, Bangunan Dato' Mohamad Saleh Perang, Kota Iskandar, 79576 Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia.

Norazmi bin Amir Hamzah is currently the director of Johor National Parks Corporation.

Salman Saaban, Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Peninsular Malaysia, Km 10, Jalan Cheras, 56100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Salman Saaban is currently the director of Enforcement Division for the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Peninsular Malaysia.

Nurul Aida Zawakhir, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Nurul Aida completed a degree in Ecology and Biodiversity at University of Malaya, Malaysia. She is now an Assistant Coordinator managing the Pahang Endau-Rompin Landscape tiger team. She was previously involved in the wildlife monitoring surveys including camera trapping of tigers for population estimation.

Yugees Rao, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Yugees Anandarao is currently one of the three Assistant Coordinators working on a tiger conservation project in the Endau Rompin landscape of Johor and Pahang, Malaysia. She has been working for WCS - Malaysia since 2012

Norolhuda Jamaluddin, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Norolhuda Jamaluddin has a degree in Biology from University of Technology Mara, Malaysia. She has been working with WCS - Malaysia in a tiger project which focusing on research and law enforcement to save the precious animal and its environment since 2010.

Francis Cheong, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Francis Cheongis currently the assistant director for WCS – Malaysia Program, managing the tiger and elephant conservation project in the Endau Rompin landscape of Johor and Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.

Norhidayati binti Khalid, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Norhidayati binti Khalid is currently one of the senior researchers for WCS – Malaysia Program, working on an elephant conservation project in the Endau Rompin landscape of Johor and Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.

Nur Iadiah Mohd Saat, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Nur Iadiah completed her degree in Conservation and Management of Biodiversity in 2010. She joined WCS Malaysia as an intern and subsequently a researcher to work on a human-elephant conflict and mitigation project in 2012. She is currently a senior researcher, working on a tiger conservation project in the Endau Rompin landscape of Johor and Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.

Eka Nadia binti Zaidee Ee, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Eka Nadia has a degree in Zoology from the faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. She worked on a turtle conservation project for WWF-Malaysia for 6 months before joining WCS - Malaysia as a tiger researcher project in the Endau Rompin landscape. She is familiar with camera trapping to estimate tiger population and monitor tiger hotspots.

Azwan bin Hamdan, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Azwan Hamdan is a senior researcher at WCS – Malaysia Program, involved in camera trapping, wildlife surveys, threat monitoring and human-wildlife conflict data collection. He is an administrator for SMART (Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tools) database for a tiger research project in the Endau Rompin Landscape of Johor and Pahang, Malaysia.

Mei Mei Chow, Penang Green Council, Tingkat 46, KOMTAR, 10503 Penang, Malaysia.

Mei Mei Chow is an environmental research assistant at Penang Green Council based in Penang, Malaysia. She was previously a wildlife researcher for WCS-Malaysia Program, involved in wildlife surveys and patrol data management.

Chee Pheng Low, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Low Chee Pheng is the project coordinator of the tiger program for Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program. She coordinates the research program to monitor the tiger and prey population in the Endau-Rompin Landscape in Malaysia.

Mufeng Voon, Sarawak Forestry Corporation, Lot 218, Jalan Tapang, Kota Sentosa, 93250 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Voon Mufeng was with the Wildlife Conservation Society as a senior researcher for four years handling the tiger conservation projects in Rompin, Pahang. Currently she works with the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) as an Executive in the GeoDrone Unit, managing the geospatial information for five main core functions of SFC. She holds a MSc in Conservation Biology from University of Kent, United Kingdom.

Song Horng Liang, Pertubuhan Pelingdung Alam Malaysia, B-06-06 Blok Casa Green Condominium, Jalan Casa Green, 43200 Cheras, Selangor, Malaysia.

Song Horng Liang has been working in wildlife conservation for 15 years; and is currently the executive director of a local Malaysian NGO, Pelindung Alam Malaysia, working on large scale wildlife surveys that cover from elephants, tigers to gibbons and hornbills. He previously managed the elephant and tiger units of Wildlife Conservation Society Malaysia for about 8 years; worked for TRAFFIC Southeast Asia on undercover wildlife trade investigation on Saiga antelopes, tigers and their prey in Malaysia and Singapore for 2 years; and assisted the Rainforest Wolf Project of Raincoast Conservation Foundation in western Canada for 2 years. He received degrees from University of Victoria, Canada (Bachelor) and National University of Singapore (MSc).

Martin Tyson, Wildlife Conservation Society, 132 Bloomingdale Ave #2, Saranac Lake, NY 12983, United States of America.

Martin Tyson is currently a technical advisor for Asian elephants at the Wildlife Conservation Society. He has worked in several SE Asian countries, focusing on elephant population survey, mitigation of human–elephant conflict, and assisting range states in developing elephant conservation plans.

Melvin Terry Gumal, Wildlife Conservation Society - Malaysia Program, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Melvin Gumal is the Country Director for Wildlife Conservation Society Malaysia.  He has been in conservation science since 1988 and studied in the universities of Melbourne and Cambridge. He currently works with colleagues on conservation of tigers and their prey, elephants, orang-utans, sharks, rays and their habitats.

References

Aihara, Y., T. Hosaka, M. Yasuda, M. Hashim & S. Numata (2016). Mammalian wildlife tourism in South-East Asian tropical rainforests: The case of Endau Rompin National Park, Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 28(2): 167–181.

Ancrenaz, M., A.J. Hearn, J. Ross, R. Sollmann & A. Wilting (2012). Handbook for Wildlife Monitoring Using Camera-traps. BBEC II Secretariat, Sabah, 71pp.

Bennett, E.L., & J.O. Caldecott (1989). Primates of Peninsular Malaysia, pp. 355–363. In: Lieth, H. & M.J.A. Werger (eds.). Ecosystems of the World Volume 14B: Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, xvii+713pp.

Blake, J.G., D. Mosquera, B.A. Loiselle, K. Swing, J. Guerra & D. Romo (2012). Temporal activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in lowland rainforest of Eastern Ecuador. Ecotropica 18: 137–146.

Burhanuddin, H.M.N., K. Hassan, S. Samsuddin, O. Shahruddin & A. Mohd Tajuddin (1995). A survey on the distribution of large mammals in Endau Rompin State Park, Johor. The Journal of Wildlife and Parks (Malaysia) 14: 16–25.

Chivers, D.J. (1980). Malayan Forest Primates: Ten Years' Study in Tropical Rain Forest. Springer, New York, 364pp.

Davison, G.W.H. & B.H. Kiew (1987). Mammals of Ulu Endau, Johore, Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 41: 435–439.

Dennis, B. (1996). Discussion: Should ecologists become bayesians? Ecological Applications 6(4):1095–1103; http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2269594

Di Bitetti, M.S., A. Paviolo, C.A. Ferrari, C.D. Angelo & Y. Blanco (2008). Differential responses to hunting in two sympatric species of Brocket Deer (Mazama americana and M. nana). Biotropica 40(5): 636–645; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00413.x

Dorazio, R.M. (2016). Bayesian data analysis in population ecology: motivations, methods, and benefits. Population Ecology 58: 31–44; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10144-015-0503-4

DWNP (2010). Red List of Mammals for Peninsular Malaysia. Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Kuala Lumpur, 150pp.

Efford, M.G. (2016). secr: Spatially Explicit Capture-recapture Models. In: R Development Core Team, R Package. 3.3.1. Edition. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.

Efford, M.G. & D.K. Dawson (2012). Occupancy in continuous habitat. Ecosphere 3(4): 32; http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/ES11-00308.1

Ellison, A.M. (1996). An introduction to bayesian inference for ecological research and environmental decision-making. Ecological Applications 6(4): 1036–1046; http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2269588

Francis, C.M. (2008). A Guide to the Mammals of Southeast Asia. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 392pp.

Fernández-Durán, J.J. (2004). Circular distributions based on nonnegative trigonometric sums. Biometrics 60(2): 499–503; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341X.2004.00195.x

Gray, T.N.E. & C. Phan (2011). Habitat preferences and activity patterns of the larger mammal community in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 59(2):311–318.

Glen, A.S., S. Cockburn, M. Nichols, J. Ekanayake & B. Warburton (2013). Optimising camera traps for monitoring small mammals. PLoS One 8(6): e67940; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067940

Goldthorpe, G. & S.H. Neo (2011). A preliminary investigation into the effects of hunting on three large ungulate species in Peninsular Malaysia, with implications for tiger conservation. Malayan Nature Journal 63(3): 549–560.

Gumal, M. (2004). Diurnal home range and roosting trees of a maternity colony of Pteropus vampyrus natunae (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in Sedilu, Sarawak. Journal of Tropical Ecology 20: 247–258; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266467403001275

Gumal, M., B.M.S. Abu Bakar, Mohd Nawayai Yasak, S.H. Liang, BPY-H. Lee, C.P. Low, Hasnizam Hamzah, D. Kong, D. Magintan, D.T.Y Ten, B.Z. Ahmad Zulfi, B.A. Azmi, B.K. Norhidayati, P.Y. Thai, M.F. Voon, F.F.M. Cheong & S. Ng (2014). Small-medium wild cats of Endau Rompin Landscape in Johor, Peninsular Malaysia. Cat News Special Issue 8: 10–18.

Hone, J. (1995). Spatial and temporal aspects of vertebrate pest damage with emphasis on feral pigs. Journal of Applied Ecology 32: 311–319; http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2307/2405098

IUCN (2017). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016.2. . Accessed on 19 March 2017.

Karanth, K.U., N.S. Kumar & J.D. Nichols (2002). Field surveys: Estimating absolute densities of tigers using capture-recapture sampling, pp. 139–152. In: Karanth, K.U. & J.D. Nichols (eds.). Monitoring Tigers and Their Prey: A Manual for Researchers, Managers and Conservationists in Tropical Asia. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, 193pp.

Karanth, K.U. & J.D. Nichols (2002). Monitoring Tigers and Their Prey: A Manual for Researchers, Managers and Conservationists in Tropical Asia. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, 193pp.

Karanth, K.U. & M.E. Sunquist (1995). Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests. Journal of Animal Ecology 64(4):439-450; http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/5647

Kawanishi, K. (2002). Population status of tigers (Panthera tigris) in a primary rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia. PhD Thesis. Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Florida, 126pp.

Kawanishi, K., G.R. Clements, M. Gumal, G. Goldthorpe, Mohd Nawayai Yasak & D.S.K. Sharma (2013). Using BAD for good: How best available data facilitated a precautionary policy change to improve protection of the prey of the tiger Panthera tigris in Malaysia. Oryx 47(3): 420–426; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312000294

Kery, M. & J.A. Royle (2015). Applied Hierarchical Modeling in Ecology: Analysis of Distribution, Abundance and Species Richness in R and BUGS. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 808pp.

Kitchen, A.M., E.M. Gese & E.R. Schauster (2000). Changes in coyote activity patterns due to reduced exposure to human persecution. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78: 853–857; http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z00-003

Korhonen, L., K.T. Korhonen, M. Rautiainen & P. Stenberg (2006). Estimation of forest canopy cover: A comparison of field measurement techniques. Silva Fennica 40(4): 577–588; http://dx.doi.org/10.14214/sf.315

Liang, S.H. (2015). Refining camera-trapping set up for smaller-sized animals. Unpublished MSc Thesis. National University of Singapore, Singapore, 135pp.

Luskin, M.S., E.D. Christina, L.C. Kelley & M.D. Potts (2013). Modern hunting practices and wild meat trade in the oil palm plantation-dominated landscapes of Sumatra, Indonesia. Human Ecology 2014: 1–11; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9606-8

MacKenzie, D.I., J.D. Nichols, G.B. Lachman, S. Droege, J.A. Royle & C.A. Langtimm (2002). Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one. Ecology 83(8): 2248–2255; http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2248:ESORWD]2.0.CO;2

MacKenzie, D.I. & J.A. Royle (2005). Designing occupancy studies: General advice and allocating survey effort. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 1105–1114; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01098.x

MacKenzie, D.I., J.D. Nichols, J.A. Royle, K.H. Pollock, L.L. Bailey & J.E. Hines (2006). Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence. Academic Press, Massachusetts, 344pp.

Maddox, T., D. Priatna, E. Gemita & A. Salampessy (2007). The Conservation of Tigers and Other Wildlife in Oil Palm Plantations. Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Zoological Society of London, London, 62pp.

McDonough, C.M. & W.J. Loughry (1997). Influences on activity patterns in a population of nine-banded armadillos. Journal of Mammalogy 78(3): 932–941; http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1382953

Meredith, M. (2016). wiqid: Estimation Functions for Wildlife Population Models. In: R Development Core Team, R Package. 3.3.1. Edition. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.

Meredith, M. & M. Ridout (2016). overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. In: R Development Core Team, R Package. 3.3.1. Edition. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.

Milton, O. (1963). Field Notes on Wildlife Conservation in Malaya. American Committee for International Wildlife Protection, New York, 28pp.

Ngoprasert, D., A.J. Lynam & G.A. Gale (2017). Effects of temporary closure of a national park on leopard movement and behaviour in tropical Asia. Mammalian Biology 82: 66-73; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2016.11.004

Norris, D., F. Michalski & C.A. Peres (2010). Habitat patch size modulates terrestrial mammal activity patterns in Amazonian forest fragments. Journal of Mammalogy 91(3): 551–560; http://dx.doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-199.1

O’Connell, A.F. & L.L. Bailey (2011). Inference for occupancy and occupancy dynamics, pp. 191–205. In: O'Connell, A.F., J.D. Nichols & K.U. Karanth (eds.). Camera Traps in Animal Ecology: Method and Analyses. Springer, Berlin, 271pp.

O'Connell, A.F., J.D. Nichols & K.U. Karanth (2011). Camera Traps in Animal Ecology: Method and Analyses. Springer, Berlin, 271pp.

Ohashi, H., M. Saito, R. Horie, H. Tsunoda, H. Noba, H. Ishii, T. Kuwabara, Y. Hiroshige, S. Koike, Y. Hoshino, H. Toda & K. Kaji (2013). Differences in the activity pattern of the wild boar Sus scrofa related to human disturbance. European Journal of Wildlife Research 59(2): 167–177; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10344-012-0661-z

Parent, E. & E. Rivot (2012). Introduction to Hierarchical Bayesian Modeling for Ecological Data. CRC Press, Florida, 427pp.

Presley, S.J., M.R. Willig, I. Castro-Arellano & S.C. Weaver (2009). Effects of habitat conversion on temporal activity patterns of phyllostomid bats in lowland Amazonian rain forest. Journal of Mammalogy, 90(1): 210–221; http://dx.doi.org/10.1644/08-MAMM-A-089.1

Linkie, M. & M.S. Ridout (2011). Assessing tiger-prey interactions in Sumatran rainforests. Journal of Zoology 284: 224–229; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00801.x

Ramakrishnan, U., R.G. Cocc & N.W Pelkey (1999). Tiger decline caused by reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India. Biological Conservation 89:113-120; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00159-1

Rayan, D.M. & M. Linkie (2015). Conserving tigers in Malaysia: A science-driven approach for eliciting conservation policy change. Biological Conservation 184: 18–26; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.12.024

Ridout, M.S. & M. Linkie (2009). Estimating overlap of daily activity patterns from camera trap data. Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics 14(3): 322–337; http://dx.doi.org/10.1198/jabes.2009.08038

Rowcliffe, J.M., R. Kays, B. Kranstauber, C. Carbone & P.A. Jansen (2014). Quantifying levels of animal activity using camera trap data. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 5:1170-1179; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12278

Royle, J.A. & R.M. Dorazio (2008). Hierarchical Modeling and Inference in Ecology: The Analysis of Data from Populations, metapopulations and communities. Academic Press, California, 444pp.

Schnurr, J.L., C.D. Canham, R.S. Ostfeld & R.S. Inouye (2004). Neighborhood analyses of small-mammal dynamics: Impacts on seed predation and seedling establishment. Ecology 85(3): 741–755; http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/02-0644

Shannon, G., J.S. Lewis & B.D. Gerber (2014). Recommended survey designs for occupancy modeling using motion-activated cameras: insights from empirical wildlife data. PeerJ 2:e532; http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.532

Sunarto, R. Sollmann, Azlan Mohamed & M.J. Kelly (2013). Camera trapping for the study and conservation of tropical carnivores. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 28: 21–42.

Time and Date AS (2015). Johor Bahru, Malaysia - Sunrise, Sunset, and Daylength. June to December 2015. . Accessed on 5 October 2016.

Trolliet, F., M. Huynen, C. Vermeulen & A. Hambuckers (2014). Use of camera traps for wildlife studies. A review. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment 18(3): 446–454.

van Doormaal, N., H. Ohashi, S. Koike & K. Kaji (2015). Influence of human activities on the activity patterns of Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Central Japan. European Journal of Wildlife Research 61(4): 517–527; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0922-8

Wade, P.R. (2001). The conservation of exploited species in an uncertain world: novel methods and the failure of traditional techniques, pp. 119–167. In: Reynolds, J., Mace, G.M., Redford, K.H. & J.G. Robinson (eds.). Conservation of Exploited Species. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 548pp.