Assessment of genetic variation for conservation implications in the Critically Endangered Bawean Deer Axis kuhlii Temminck, 1836 (Mammalia: Artiodactyla: Cervidae)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10203.18.9.29716-29720Keywords:
Captive breeding, conservation genetics, genetic diversity, genetic structure, inbreeding, microsatellites, translocationAbstract
The Bawean Deer Axis kuhlii, endemic to the small Indonesian island of Bawean, is listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ with fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining in the wild. The first genetic assessment of captive A. kuhlii populations using 13 microsatellite markers were conducted. Samples included individuals from Bawean, multiple Indonesian zoos, and a European zoo. The goals were to assess genetic diversity and to test for potential hybridisation with Rusa unicolor and Rusa timorensis, due to frequent mixed-species housing in Javan facilities. STRUCTURE analysis revealed no evidence of hybridisation and identified three genetic clusters within A. kuhlii, likely reflecting drift and kinship effects. Genetic diversity was low across all A. kuhlii samples, but slightly higher in the Bawean population. Some alleles present in Java zoo populations were absent from Bawean. These findings suggest that while inbreeding may be a concern, managed translocation between captive and wild populations could enhance genetic diversity without introducing hybridisation risk. Targeted integration of ex-situ individuals and the inclusion of wild-caught stags into the Bawean breeding program are recommended to support genetic rescue efforts and long-term population viability.
References
Ariyanto, A. et al. (2025 a). Spatially explicit estimation of the Bawean Deer population using antler-based male identification and sex and age ratios. Wildlife Society Bulletin 49(3): e1610. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.1610
Ariyanto, A. et al. (2025b). Assessing threats to the Bawean Deer, a camera trap approach, IUCN Deer Specialist Group Newsletter 36: 11–19. https://www.deerspecialistgroup.org/newsletters/
Belkhir, K. et al. (2004). GENETIX 4.05. Population genetics software for Windows TM. Université de Montpellier II, Montpellier.
Bell, D.A. et al. (2019). The exciting potential and remaining uncertainties of genetic rescue. Trends Ecological Evolution 34: 1070–1079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.06.006
Frankham, R. (1998). Inbreeding and extinction: island populations. Conservation Biology 12: 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.00222.x
Frantz, A.C. et al. (2024). Landscape structure does not hinder the dispersal of an invasive herbivorous mammal in the New Caledonian biodiversity hotspot. European Journal of Wildlife Research 70(1): 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-023-01757-0”10.1007/s10344-023-01757-0
Gaur, A. et al. (2003). Development and characterization of 10 novel microsatellite markers from Chital Deer (Cervus axis) and their cross-amplification in other related species. Molecular Ecology Notes 3(4): 607–609. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-8286.2003.00528.x
Goudet, J. (1995). FSTAT (vers. 1.2): a computer program to calculate F-statistics. Journal of Heredity 86: 485–486.
Hedrick, P.W. et al. (2019). Genetics and extinction and the example of Isle Royale wolves. Animal Conservation 22: 302–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12479
Jones, K.C. et al. (2002). Characterization of 11 polymorphic tetranucleotide microsatellites for forensic applications in California Elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis). Molecular Ecology Notes 2(4): 425-427. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-8286.2002.00264.x
Sánchez-Velásquez, J.J. et al. (2022). Genetic diversity and relatedness inferred from microsatellite loci as a tool for broodstock management of Fine Flounder Paralichthys adspersus. Aquaculture and Fisheries 7(6): 664–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaf.2021.06.008
Kyriazis, C.C. et al. (2021). Strongly deleterious mutations are a primary determinant of extinction risk due to inbreeding depression. Evolution Letters 5: 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/evl3.209
Pritchard, J.K. et al. (2000). Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155: 945–959. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/155.2.945
Rahman, D.A. et al. (2023). Population trend and ecology of the most isolated deer in the world, Bawean Deer (Axis kuhlii): conservation challenges. Therya 14(2): 281–292. https://doi.org/10.12933/therya-23-2207
Raymond, M. & F. Rousset (1995). GENEPOP (version 1.2): population genetics software for exact tests and ecumenicism. Journal of Heredity 86(3): 248–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111573
Semiadi, G. et al. (2015). Axis kuhlii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T2447A73071875. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T2447A73071875.en. Accessed on 11.ix.2026.
Semiadi, G. et al. (2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T21174A44139369. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T21174A44139369.en. Accessed on 15 September 2026.
Verhoeven, K.J.F. et al. (2005). Implementing false discovery rate control: increasing your power. Oikos 108: 643–647. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13727.x
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Frank Drygala, Alain C. Frantz, Gono Semiadi, Jörg Mehnert, Agus Ariyanto, Yul Ianto, Wirda Teti
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors own the copyright to the articles published in JoTT. This is indicated explicitly in each publication. The authors grant permission to the publisher Wildlife Information Liaison Development (WILD) Society to publish the article in the Journal of Threatened Taxa. The authors recognize WILD as the original publisher, and to sell hard copies of the Journal and article to any buyer. JoTT is registered under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY), which allows authors to retain copyright ownership. Under this license the authors allow anyone to download, cite, use the data, modify, reprint, copy and distribute provided the authors and source of publication are credited through appropriate citations (e.g., Son et al. (2016). Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the southeastern Truong Son Mountains, Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(7): 8953–8969. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2785.8.7.8953-8969). Users of the data do not require specific permission from the authors or the publisher.
