Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2025 | 17(8): 27355-27362
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9928.17.8.27355-27362
#9928 | Received 15 May 2025 | Final received 04 June 2025 | Finally
accepted 01 August 2025
Tectonic turmoil: consequences of
violent earthquake-2025 on biodiversity collapse in Myanmar
Hsu Htoo
1 ,
Imon Abedin 2, Sang Van Vu 3 , Hyun-Woo
Kim 4 & Shantanu Kundu
5
1,4 Department of Marine Biology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of
Korea.
2 Department of Zoology, Bodoland
University, Kokrajhar, Assam 783370, India.
3 Faculty of Biology, University of
Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Hanoi 11400, Vietnam.
4 Marine Integrated Biomedical
Technology Center, National Key Research Institutes in Universities, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of
Korea.
5 Ocean and Fisheries Development
International Cooperation Institute, College of FisheriesScience,
Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Republic of
Korea.
1 hsuhtoo95@gmail.com, 2 imon.jabedin@gmail.com,
3 vuvansangts50@gmail.com, 4 kimhw@pknu.ac.kr
(corresponding author), 5 shantanu1984@pknu.ac.kr (corresponding
author)
Editor: Ngwe Lwin, Myanmar
Program at Fauna and Flora International, Myanmar. Date of publication: 26 August 2025 (online & print)
Citation: Htoo, H., I. Abedin, S.V. Vu, H.-W. Kim & S. Kundu (2025). Tectonic
turmoil: consequences of violent earthquake-2025 on biodiversity collapse in
Myanmar. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(8): 27355–27362. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9928.17.8.27355-27362
Copyright: © Htoo et al. 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Hsu Htoo is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Marine Biology, College of Fisheries Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea. Imon Abedin is a Ph.D. scholar in the Department of Zoology at Bodoland University and a Biologist at Aaranyak (a Scientific and Industrial Research Organization), Assam, India. Sang Van Vu is a lecturer in the Faculty of Biology, University of Science, Vietnam National University,
Hanoi, Vietnam. Hyun-Woo Kim is a professor in the College of Fisheries Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea. Shantanu Kundu is an assistant professor in the College of Fisheries Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea.
Author contributions: Conceptualization—HWK and SK; Data collection—HH and IA; Writing original draft preparation—HH, IA, and SVV; Writing review and editing—HWK and SK; Visualization—HH and SVV; Supervision—HWK and SK. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to Professor Rainer Breitling from the Bioinformatics Institute (BII), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore and Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, United Kingdom for his invaluable critical comments, and suggestions. H.H. would like to convey their appreciation for the assistance provided by the Global Korea Scholarship 2021 (Student ID: CS01211030), which enabled their Doctoral Program in the Department of Marine Biology at Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea. We express our profound appreciation to the local inhabitants of Inle Lake and Myanmar community volunteers, especially July Hnin, and Thadoe Wai for sharing detailed information, and photographs.
Abstract: This study provides a preliminary
rapid-response assessment of the immediate impacts of the 2025 violent
earthquake in Myanmar on biodiversity. The photographic evidence and
communication with the local communities reported mass mortality of freshwater
gastropods in Inle Lake, with predictions of
substantial losses among several bithyniid species, including endemic ones.
Additionally, the unnatural deaths of freshwater fishes (e.g., carps and
catfishes) in the Mahamuni Pagoda Pond, Mandalay,
indicate that the earthquake also affected larger freshwater vertebrates. This
first documentation highlights the need for further investigations into
freshwater ecosystems, particularly within the Irrawaddy River basin, to
comprehensively assess the earthquake’s impact on native biodiversity. The
study also recommends further scientific validation and long-term monitoring
efforts in Inle Lake to support the restoration of
lost biodiversity and to safeguard the livelihoods of the native Intha communities that depend on this freshwater ecosystem.
Keywords: Aquatic species, biodiversity
loss, conservation, Gastropods, freshwater fishes, seismic impact, southeastern
Asia.
BACKGROUND
Earthquakes occur when stress
accumulates at plate boundaries due to friction and is suddenly released,
causing fault movement, and generating seismic waves (Ide 2010). These natural
phenomena significantly affect the environment through ground shaking, surface
rupture, landslides, soil liquefaction, and tsunamis, leading to both immediate
and long-term consequences (Ratnapradipa et al.
2012). Specifically, earthquakes trigger tsunamis that flood coastal areas,
alter salinity, deposit harmful sediments, and damage critical marine habitats
such as coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds, disrupting aquatic
biodiversity (Lebrato et al. 2019). In freshwater
systems, earthquakes can shift river courses or create new reservoirs,
hindering species migration, and water quality. Furthermore, the soil liquefaction can collapse
habitats, particularly in reservoirs and lakes, causing further decline in many
aquatic species. Moreover, the groundwater biodiversity is also significantly
impacted by seismic activity, with loss of subterranean species (Galassi et al. 2014). It has been shown previously that the
2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami caused notable shifts in species diversity
in rocky intertidal zones (Urabe et al. 2013). Additionally, earthquakes can
trigger biogeochemical shifts in hydrothermal vents, disrupting aquatic
ecosystems (Lebrato et al. 2019). A previous global
study shows that earthquakes increase extinction risks for various species
(Gonçalves et al. 2024).
In particular, the 2009
earthquake that affected the karstic Gran Sasso
Aquifer in Italy is presumed to have induced significant biogeographical and
ecological disturbances, altering habitats, disrupting ecosystem dynamics, and
influencing species distribution patterns (Fattorini
et al. 2017). Such seismic activity likely caused physical damage to critical
ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, and agricultural lands, leading to
habitat loss for numerous species, as observed across various biogeographic
regions (Qiu et al. 2015; Sidle et al. 2018). The
displacement of flora and fauna due to land shifts, landslides, and
infrastructure damage has altered local biodiversity patterns, while disruption
to natural habitats may impede species migration, reproduction, and access to
food sources, potentially leading to long-term ecological imbalances (Li et al.
2022; Yuan et al. 2024). Additionally, earthquake impact on soil stability, and
water systems has been reported to exacerbate threats to vegetation growth, and
aquatic ecosystems, jeopardizing both terrestrial, and aquatic biodiversity (Galassi et al. 2014).
On 28 March 2025, Myanmar was
struck by a series of earthquakes, beginning with a magnitude 7.7 tremor near
Mandalay at 0620 h UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) (United States Geological
Survey, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us7000pn9s/executive),
followed by a 6.7-magnitude quake at 0632 h UTC in the western part of the
country, and several subsequent aftershocks (Image 1). These included a
magnitude 4.8 quake near Taungdwingyi at 06:39 UTC, a
4.9-magnitude tremor in Sagaing at 0642 h UTC, and a
4.9-magnitude earthquake near Taungngu at 0645 h UTC.
Additional aftershocks continued throughout the morning, with several quakes of
magnitudes 4.5–4.6, impacting areas such as Shwebo, Pyinmana, and Mandalay. The earthquake, caused by a
strike-slip movement along the Sagaing Fault,
underscores the ongoing tectonic strain between the Indian and Eurasian Plates
(Shahzada et al. 2025). This event serves as a
reminder of the region’s high seismic risk, where the continuous pressure from
the plate collision leads to the release of energy through fault ruptures. The
earthquake sequence caused over 2,700 civilian deaths, 4,500 injuries, and 450
missing, with widespread destruction in Mandalay, Myanmar, and tremors
spreading up to Thailand. Subsequently, countries like China, India, and the
U.S. provided emergency aid, including supplies, medical help, and rescue
teams, while the UN coordinated relief efforts. The immediate consequences of
this natural disaster shift focus to human casualties, infrastructure damage,
and emergency response, temporarily overlooking biodiversity loss. In the face
of immediate humanitarian needs, attention is often distracted from ecological
concerns, eventually relegating the habitat damage, ecosystem disruption, and
species loss. Therefore, long-term recovery efforts must prioritize both human
well-being, and biodiversity conservation by identifying, and restoring key
ecological habitats to enhance resilience, and ensure sustainable future
ecosystems.
The seismotectonics
of this region are primarily driven by the ongoing collision between the Indian
Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which began approximately 50 million years ago
and continues to this day (Hurukawa et al. 2012).
This collision has resulted in the formation of the Himalayan Mountain range
and the Tibetan Plateau, generating significant seismic activity (Shahzada et al. 2025). The region is characterized by
several fault systems, including the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Sagaing Fault, each of
which plays a crucial role in earthquake generation (Li et al. 2024). Myanmar,
located at the eastern edge of the Indian Plate’s interaction with the Eurasian
Plate, is influenced not only by Himalayan tectonics but also by the subduction
zone off its coast, where the Indian Ocean Plate subducts beneath the Sunda Plate (Taylor & Yin 2009). The Sagaing Fault, a major strike-slip fault running through
Myanmar, accommodates lateral motion between the Indian and Eurasian Plates,
contributing to the region’s seismic activity (Wang et al. 2014). Due to the
relatively underdeveloped seismic monitoring and mitigation infrastructure in
this region compared to other seismically active areas, there is a critical
need for increased research into the region’s seismotectonics
for more effective risk assessment, and disaster preparedness in these
earthquake-prone regions. Therefore, in light of the recent 2025 violent
earthquake in Myanmar, the present study aims to undertake a rapid assessment
of its immediate impacts on biodiversity in two ecologically and culturally
significant sites: (i) Inle Lake, a
naturally biodiversity-rich area located on the southern Shan Plateau and (ii)
the Mahamuni Pagoda Pond in Mandalay, an artificial
but conservation-relevant aquatic habitat. Given the critical role of both
sites in regional biodiversity and conservation, this preliminary report offers
an early overview of
biodiversity loss resulting from the disaster. This study is intended to serve
as a foundational baseline for more comprehensive post-disaster assessments of
diverse biogeographic regions and native biota across Myanmar.
Study
design
Following the earthquake on 28
March 2025, ecological alterations and biodiversity loss were assessed at Inle Lake (20.552o N, 96.916o E),
located on the southern Shan Plateau, and at Mahamuni
Pagoda Pond (21.951o N, 96.080o E) in Mandalay, Myanmar. Inle Lake is the second-largest lake in Myanmar and the
only ancient lake on the Indochinese Peninsula. Despite its relatively small
size (~116 km2) and shallow depth (with an average of only two
meters), this lake supports significant freshwater biodiversity and endemism,
similar to other ancient lakes, such as Baikal in Russia, Tanganyika in Africa,
and Biwa in Japan (Hampton et al. 2018). Furthermore, the Mahamuni
Pagoda Pond harbours a diverse assemblage of aquatic
fauna, including various species of carp (Cyprinidae),
catfish (Siluriformes), and freshwater turtles. These
animals are frequently released by pilgrims as part of long-standing religious
and cultural rituals that symbolize the act of merit-making. The recent
assessment was carried out at both study sites through a randomized
questionnaire survey conducted among local inhabitants and community
volunteers. The field documentation was supported by photographic evidence
captured using a Canon EOS 7D Mark II camera equipped with an 18–135 mm lens.
The generation of the maps
involved multiple stages of data retrieval and processing of vector files.
Initially, global administrative boundary shapefiles were obtained from the
DIVA-GIS platform (https://diva-gis.org/data.html), which provides
high-resolution vector datasets suitable for spatial analysis. These shapefiles
were imported into ArcMap
(ArcGIS v10.6) for subsequent processing and overlay analysis.
Furthermore, the rupture trace associated with the violent earthquake 2025 in
Myanmar was obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth
Explorer platform (https://www.usgs.gov/). Data on Myanmar’s protected areas were
acquired from the Protected Planet database (https://www.protectedplanet.net/en).
This dataset includes officially designated protected regions and supports the
assessment of environmental vulnerability. All spatial datasets were
standardized by reprojecting them into the WGS 84
geographic coordinate system to ensure consistency and compatibility across
layers. The processed data were compiled and exported for the generation of the
final thematic maps.
OBSERVATION
Gastropod mortality in Inle Lake
This study documents the sudden
mortality of millions of gastropods from multiple species in Inle Lake (Image 1). To date, 36 species of freshwater molluscs, including 18 endemic species, have been recorded
from the Inle Lake basin (Annandale 1918a; Annandale
& Rao 1925). The family Bithyniidae, one of the
most common groups of freshwater snails within the basin, is widely distributed
across Africa, Eurasia, and Australia, inhabiting rivers, wetlands, ponds, and
lakes. Six species of bithyniid snails have been documented in the Inle Lake basin and surrounding regions, viz., Hydrobioides turrita,
H. nassa, H. physcus,
H. avarix, Gabbia
nana, and G. alticola. Four of these
species (H. physcus, H. avarix,
G. nana, and G. alticola) are
considered endemic to the Inle Lake basin (Zhang et
al. 2025). In light of the recent earthquake in Myanmar, the widespread
mortality of molluscs in Inle
Lake suggests a dramatic loss of native biodiversity, including many endemic
species (Image 2). The decaying carcasses of these snails have contributed to
the rapid deterioration of water quality, potentially exacerbated by the
release of unpleasant odours and the proliferation of
harmful microbes. This microbial surge poses further risks to the remaining
native freshwater species in the lake.
Fish mortality at Mahamuni Pagoda Pond
The study also documents the
unnatural mortality of sacred freshwater fish in the Mahamuni
Pagoda Pond following the recent earthquake (Images 1 & 2). This seismic
disturbance appears to have triggered adverse ecological conditions in the
confined aquatic environment, including potential shifts in water chemistry,
hypoxia, and the suspension of sediment-bound pollutants, all of which could
have contributed to the observed fish die-offs (Devane
et al. 2014). This pond also supports breeding activities, where fish
populations occasionally reach densities high enough to require transfer or
release into nearby natural water bodies, most notably the Irrawaddy River
(Global new light of Myanmar 2024). Such movement of fauna between managed and
wild habitats presents both ecological opportunities and biosecurity risks,
particularly following stress events like earthquakes. Furthermore, the presence
of several freshwater turtle species within the pond is of particular
conservation concern, including the Critically Endangered Burmese Roofed Turtle
Batagur trivittata,
and the Burmese Peacock Softshell Nilssonia
formosa (Calle et al. 2021). Both species are
endemic to Myanmar and are facing severe threats due to habitat loss,
overexploitation, and illegal trade (Platt et al. 2019; Horne et al. 2021).
COMMENTARY
Earlier evidence suggests that
earthquakes and their subsequent effects can influence the ecological dynamics,
genetic composition, and structural changes within molluscan communities in
Japan (Sato & Chiba 2016; Miura et al. 2017). Additionally, studies have
documented that earthquakes impact molluscan species and their toxic metal
accumulation, potentially posing significant risks to human health (Tapia et
al. 2019). Thus, immediate intervention by local governments and conservation
agencies is crucial to mitigate the ecological impacts of this event and
protect the lake’s unique biodiversity. In addition to its rich biodiversity, Inle Lake in Myanmar plays a pivotal role in supporting the
livelihoods of the local Intha communities (Htwe et al. 2015). This aquatic ecosystem is also regarded
as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) —
Man and the Biosphere Reserve (MAB) and is a wetland of International
Importance designated under the Ramsar Convention (Oo et al. 2022). Furthermore, this ecosystem is also
designated as a Wildlife Sanctuary and ASEAN Heritage Park in Myanmar. The lake
serves as a critical source of several endemic freshwater fish and other
aquatic species, providing essential sustenance and income through fishing
activities (Annandale 1918b; Michalon 2015; Kano et
al. 2016, 2022; Win 2018; Fuke et al. 2021, 2022; Musikasinthorn et al. 2023). A recent assessment of endemic
fish species in Inle Lake revealed that Cypriniformes were the most dominant (70%), followed by Synbranchiformes (20%) and Anabantiformes
(10%) in terms of relative abundance (Naing & Tun
2022). Aside from the discovery of new species of decapods and gastropods
(Annandale 1918a; Kemp 1918; Annandale & Rao 1925; Ng et al. 2000; Sawada
2022; Zhang et al. 2025), the abundance, and diversity of other freshwater
invertebrates in the lake have not yet been systematically assessed.
Furthermore, the surrounding wetlands are home to distinctive floating gardens,
where crops and vegetables are cultivated on platforms made from vegetation,
enabling year-round agriculture in the nutrient-rich waters (Win 1996). Inle Lake also draws significant tourism, contributing to
the local economy through hospitality services, guided tours, and the sale of
regional crafts (Su & Jassby 2000). As an
important transportation hub, the lake facilitates daily commutes for those
residing in stilted houses along its shores, ensuring access to essential
services and trade. Moreover, the lake is intricately linked to the cultural
heritage of the area, with traditional crafts such as silk and lotus fiber
weaving, alongside religious, and cultural practices centered around numerous
pagodas, and monasteries. In addition, recent studies have documented
significant alterations in land use and land cover change (LULCC) in the Inle Lake region, characterized by declining trends in
forest, and perennial wetland areas primarily due to anthropogenic pressures
(Karki et al. 2018; Michalon et al. 2019). The recent
earthquake may have further intensified LULCC patterns in this ecosystem,
underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive investigation to understand its
dynamics, and ecological implications.
The artificial pond at Mahamuni Pagoda has been designated as a conservation
priority site, where the resident turtles are afforded daily offerings and
protection. This site serves as a semi-natural refuge that complements ex-situ
conservation initiatives. The earthquake may have compromised water quality
parameters such as dissolved oxygen levels, ammonia concentration, and
temperature fluctuations, all of which are critical to the health of
ectothermic reptiles (Qian et al. 2013). Given the ecological significance of
the Mahamuni Pagoda reservoir, further
interdisciplinary research is essential to evaluate the earthquake’s impact on
both aquatic biodiversity and water quality. This includes post-seismic
monitoring and management of physicochemical parameters, histopathological
assessments and treatments of affected fauna, and population surveys of key
species. The results will be pivotal in formulating evidence-based conservation
strategies to protect these culturally and biologically important aquatic
organisms from future disturbances.
A key limitation of this study is
its exclusive reliance on photographic evidence and information obtained
through local communication following the March 2025 seismic event in Myanmar.
Estimating the number of snails that died was based on visual documentation
alone, which may have introduced significant biases in quantification. The lack of pre-event baseline data further
complicates the assessment of how much of the population was impacted, making
it difficult to determine whether the mortality event signifies a threat of
extinction or a temporary fluctuation in population size. These constraints
highlight the challenges of accurately assessing the biodiversity impacts of
this natural calamity through remote observations. Additional scientific
validation through water quality assessments, histopathological analyses of
deceased species, and genetic studies aimed at evaluating ecosystem resilience
is urgently needed to monitor the native biodiversity in this key ecosystem
following the earthquake. Several protected areas in Myanmar are located in
close proximity to active fault lines, including those possibly affected by the
Violent March 2025 earthquake. In addition to Inle
Lake, the region encompasses several protected areas located to the east of the
fault line, including Panlaung & Padalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary (WS), Pyin-O-Lwin
Bird Sanctuary, Shwe-U-Daung
WS, Minwuntaung WS, and Taunggyi Bird Sanctuary. On
the western side of the fault line, key protected areas such as North Zamrari WS, Moeyungyi Wetland Ramsar Site, Minsontaung WS, Moeyungyi Wetland WS, and Popa
Mountain Park harbour ecologically significant
floral, and faunal assemblages. Given the ecological sensitivity of these
areas, further investigation into the impacts of the March 2025 earthquake is
essential to inform comprehensive post-disaster ecological assessments, and
conservation strategies.
For
images - - click here for full PDF
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