Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 October 2025 | 17(10): 27734–27747
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9887.17.10.27734-27747
#9887 | Received 01 May 2025 | Final received 04 September 2025 | Finally
accepted 10 September 2025
Understanding the ethnozoological
drivers and socioeconomic patterns of bird hunting in the Indian subcontinent
Anish Banerjee
Think Wildlife Foundation,
Prestige Augusta, Konthanur, Rampura Bengaluru,
Karnataka 560077, India.
anishbanerjee27112001@gmail.com
Editor: Ashutosh Singh, Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History
(SACON), Coimbatore, India. Date of publication: 26 October 2025 (online & print)
Citation:
Banerjee, A. (2025). Understanding the ethnozoological drivers and socioeconomic
patterns of bird hunting in the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Threatened Taxa 17(10): 27734–27747. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9887.17.10.27734-27747
Copyright: © Banerjee 2025. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: EAZA Zoos and Aquariums.
Competing interests: The author declares no competing interests.
Author details: Anish Banerjee is an early career ecologist with a masters in ecology, evolution and conservation from Imperial College London. He is currently a legal analyst for Legal Analyst, conducting policy analyst on topics ranging from tiger trafficking, biodiversity regulatory risk and wild aquatic animal health. He is also the founder of Think Wild Foundation, an organization working on small scale restoration projects and research on illegal wildlife trade and human wildlife conflict.
Acknowledgments: I would like to acknowledge Shreya Sethi, Chris R. Shepherd and the Monitor Conservation and Research Society for providing guidance for this research. We would also like to thank the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) for supporting Monitor’s work on the illegal and unsustainable trade in birds.
Abstract: Bird hunting and trade pose major
threats to avifauna in the Indian subcontinent. Although prohibited under the
Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, bird poaching has continued, driven
primarily by demand from the pet trade, traditional medicine, and cultural
beliefs. This study systematically reviewed literature on the socioeconomic and
ethnozoological drivers of bird hunting, and trade across India, Pakistan,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Around 124 publications were analysed to examine bird use, socioeconomic drivers, and
poaching trends. Keywords including “zootherapy,” “ethnozoology,” “traditional
uses”, and “bird trade” were used to identify relevant studies on bird hunting
with Google Search, Scopus, and Web of Science. A linear regression analysis
revealed a significant negative correlation between the sub-national human
development index and the number of species hunted at the state level, while,
factors like indigenous population size, and state gross production per capita
did not significantly impact hunting prevalence. A chi-square test for independence revealed
that subsistence hunting in India was less than expected, with cultural, and
commercial factors being more significant drivers of hunting. The pet trade was
a key driver of poaching in India and Bangladesh, while traditional falconry in
Pakistan severely affected raptor populations. A strong positive correlation
was found between the number of studies per state and reported hunting
prevalence, highlighting geographical, and temporal biases in research. A more
comprehensive analysis is needed to fully understand bird hunting patterns,
integrating government seizure records, NGO rescue data, CITES trade data, and
online media sources.
Keywords: Bird conservation, bird poaching,
ethnoornithology, ethnozoology, exotic bird trade, indigenous hunting, illegal
wildlife trade, subsistence hunting, wildlife crime, wildlife hunting.
Introduction
Bird hunting and trade pose a
significant threat to avifauna across the Indian subcontinent, driven by a
range of cultural, economic, and commercial factors (Bhupathy
et al. 2013; Roy et al. 2024) . Despite the existence of legislation such as
the Wild Life (Protection) Act that prohibits the poaching and trade of
wildlife, a study analyzing 182 media reports documented the seizure of 25,850
birds across 109 incidents (Poonia et al. 2022). The
illegal bird trade persists due to demand from the pet market, traditional
medicine (zootherapy), cultural beliefs (Solavan et
al. 2004; Yesodharam et al. 2011; Velho & Laurance 2013; Vijaykumar et al. 2015), subsistence
hunting, and sport hunting (Selvan et al. 2013; Das et al. 2017; Ahmed et al.
2021).
The use of birds in traditional
medicine is widespread across the Indian subcontinent, reflecting broader
global trends. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80% of the
global population relies on traditional medicine, including zootherapy (WHO
2022). In northeastern India, 24 bird species have been documented as being
used by 17 ethnic groups to treat 37 diseases (Das et al. 2017). Similarly, in
Bhutan, five bird species are commonly used in Sowa Rigpa
Medicine (Yeshi et al. 2021). Bird use in
ethnopharmacology is prevalent across Nepal and Pakistan as well (Lalramnghinglova 1999; Negi & Palyal
2007; Lohani 2010, 2012; Lokwani
2011; Tynson et al. 2012; Paudyal
2014; Paudyal & Singh 2014; Kushwah
2017; Shoukat et al. 2020; Adhikari et al. 2020,
2023; Ahmad et al. 2021; Kunwar 2024). Beyond medicinal use, superstitious
rituals and religious practices also drive the poaching of certain species. For
example, the Mottled Wood Owl Strix ocellata, and Brown Fish Owl Bubo zeylonensis are frequently targeted for illegal trade
in India during the Diwali festival, where they are used in black magic
practices (Ahmed 2010).
Hunting for sport and captive
breeding further exacerbates the decline of several bird species. In Pakistan,
the hunting of the Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis
undulata has surged as its populations have
declined in the Middle East and northern Africa, making the country a key
destination for Arab falconers (Tourenq et al. 2005).
The live capture of raptors, including the Laggar
Falcon Falco jugger, and White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa, has
also increased due to high mortality rates in falconry, further driving illegal
poaching in Pakistan (Mohan & Athreya 2011).
Meanwhile, in both Nepal and Bangladesh, there have been numerous records of
bird and wildlife poaching for ethnozoological purposes (Poudel & Singh
2016; Barkat et al. 2021).
In
India, subsistence hunting remains a significant driver of bird poaching in
some regions. For instance, in Pangti Village, Wokha District of Nagaland, the massacre of Amur falcons Falco
amurensis was driven for local consumption, and
for sale in a nearby market (Mero & Mishra 2022). Despite the prevalence of
bird hunting across the Indian subcontinent, limited efforts have been made to
synthesize available data at a national scale. Research on bird poaching is
often localized within a specific state or district or included as part of
broader wildlife trade analyses (Niraj et al. 2012; Poonia
et al. 2022; Singh 2023).
This literature review aims to
consolidate and analyse the socioeconomic and
ethnozoological drivers of bird hunting and trade in the Indian subcontinent,
covering India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Maldives, though a
part of the Indian subcontinent, is not included in the study due to a lack of
publications on the topic. Specifically, the review aims at identifying the
ethnozoological uses of birds, including traditional medicine, and cultural
practices. Additionally, it investigates the correlation between income levels,
the subnational human development index (SHDI), and bird hunting prevalence at
a subnational level. SHDI is a more comprehensive socioeconomic factor than
household income, which incorporates factors like education, standard of
living, and health. Lastly, the review identifies patterns in bird trade,
including available data on species hunted, trade quantities, pricing, trade
routes, and involvement of tribal communities.
Furthermore, this review seeks to
identify critical knowledge gaps and data limitations in existing literature.
By incorporating insights from both peer-reviewed studies and technical reports
(e.g., TRAFFIC, WWF), this study aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of
bird poaching trends, and their implications for conservation efforts in the
region.
Methods
Literature search
The preliminary literature search
was conducted using the search terms “bird trade” and “bird hunting” on Google
Search, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. The initial search was limited to
articles covering bird hunting and trade in India, as this was the initial
scope of the project. Only 11 articles were found in India for these specific
keywords. Therefore, the geographic scope of the search was expanded to all
countries in the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal,
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. This resulted in an additional 14 articles on the
topic of bird hunting and trade, bringing the total to 25 publications.
Snowballing techniques were used
to identify other potential primary keywords related to bird hunting in the
region from references cited in the preliminary papers on “bird hunting” and
“bird trade”. From these papers, a recurring theme of literature cited was the
traditional use of birds by indigenous communities. Phrases such as
“zootherapy”, “ethnozoology”, “traditional uses”, and “ethnopharmacology”
were identified as key search terms. Literature with these themes was in the
scope of this literature review, which aimed to identify the drivers, uses, and
patterns of bird trade and hunting in the region. While these keywords did
produce studies solely focused on the traditional uses of birds, many papers
were more generic and included wildlife as a whole. Additionally, numerous
papers on the generic themes of “bird conservation”, “illegal wildlife trade”,
and “wildlife hunting” were also identified. From the search results, any
article within the geographical scope that contained the trade, hunting, or
ethnozoological use of at least one species of wild bird was utilized for the
study (Mirin & Klinck 2021). Publications without
explicit reference to the trade, hunting, or use of a single avian species were
not utilized for the literature review. The distribution of literature across
keywords is illustrated in Table 1.
The literature review was not
limited only to peer-reviewed publications. Technical reports from
organizations, such as TRAFFIC and WWF, were also utilized for this
publication. Preprint repositories such as bioRxiv
and ResearchSquare were also searched, using all the
mentioned keywords. The literature review also aimed to identify temporal
patterns in bird hunting and trade in the region. Therefore, there was no
criterion regarding the timeframe within which a study was published. The
earliest study included was published in 1986 (Mian
1986). All relevant studies published until November 2024, was included in this
study.
Zotero has a built-in
duplicate detection feature that was utilized to prevent the duplication of
publications in the literature review. Additionally, a manual review of the
citation was also conducted to remove duplicate publications (Mirin & Klinck 2021). In total 124 publications were used for
the literature review, that includes 120 peer-reviewed publications, two
preprints, and two technical reports.
Literature review data collection
A wide array of information was
extracted from each source, including metadata of the study, such as study
location, data collection methods, year of publication, and, where relevant,
the ethnic groups interviewed.
The studies were further
categorized by geographical scale, ranging from local to international levels.
Local-level studies were confined to a single jurisdiction below the district
level, such as a forest division, city, village, or market. District and
state-level studies encompassed multiple locations within a district or state,
respectively. Regional studies spanned two or more states within a single
country, while national-level studies examined wildlife trade across an entire
country. International-level studies included research conducted across
multiple countries.
This literature review
incorporated studies employing both primary and secondary data collection
methods. Primary methods included local interviews and market surveys, whereas
secondary methods relied on government seizure records, crime data, and news
reports. Additionally, species-specific data were compiled from each source,
covering bird species involved in trade, hunting, or seizures. The scientific
names of the recorded species were obtained from HBW-BirdLife
Version 5.0 (December 2020), while their conservation status was
determined using the IUCN Red List (2024). Additional details, such as
the number of seizures, the individual birds involved, trade or hunting
purposes, pricing information, the ethnic groups engaged, the body parts used,
and any associated ethnozoological beliefs linked to the species.
Socioeconomic data collection
The trends in bird species were
compared to various socioeconomic parameters. The first amongst these was the
sub-national human development index provided by the global data index (Global
Data Lab 2022).
Another socioeconomic factor
utilized in this study was the net state domestic product (NSDP) per capita for
each Indian state. This was chosen to identify whether income levels affected
the likelihood of hunting birds. The state-wise data were retrieved using the
data provided from the Press Information Bureau under the Ministry of
Statistics and Program Implementation (Press Information Bureau 2023).
Different conversion rates were used because the per capita NSDP values for
each state are reported for different fiscal years. Exchange rates fluctuate
annually, so applying a single rate for all years would introduce inaccuracies.
To ensure a more precise conversion, 2020–21 data was converted using the
average exchange rate of ₹74.00 per USD for that year while the 2021–22 data
was converted using ₹74.50 per USD (average for that period). Finally, the
2022–23 data was converted using ₹82.00 per USD, reflecting the depreciation of
the Indian rupee in that timeframe. Unfortunately, similar state-wise data was
not found for the provinces and states of Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal.
As this study aimed at
identifying any ethnozoological patterns of bird hunting in the region, the
population of scheduled tribes (ST) in each Indian state were also retrieved
from the 2011 national census (Ministry of Tribal Affairs 2013). Like NSDP, the
state-wise population of indigenous and tribal communities in Bangladesh,
Pakistan, and Nepal was not found.
Simple linear regression analysis
was conducted to understand how factors such as SHDI, NSDP per capita, and ST
population influenced the number of species hunted, and the number of bird
hunting records per state. Additionally, a linear regression was conducted to determine
the influence of the number of publications on the number of species hunted.
Results
Geographical distribution of
literature
India contributed the highest
proportion of studies, representing 61% (n = 76), followed by Pakistan with 20%
(n = 25), Nepal with 15% (n = 19), and Bangladesh with 4% (n = 5). Bhutan had
only one publication, which did not include a recorded list of hunted species.
At a subnational level, Arunachal Pradesh had the highest number of
publications (n = 12). In fact, there was a disproportionate number of
publications from the northeast Indian States, with 23 studies being published
from the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and
Sikkim.
In terms of geographical scale,
most studies (n = 51) were conducted at the district level. This was followed
by state-level (n = 26) and local-level (n = 25) studies. Fewer studies were
conducted at broader scales, with nine at the regional level and 12 at the
national level. Only one study was conducted at an international level,
incorporating data from Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and India. The
geographical distribution of literature is depicted in Figure 1.
Temporal distribution of
literature
The earliest study on bird
hunting, trade, and poaching dates back to 1986. A significant increase in
publications occurred after 2010, with 81% of all studies (n = 106) published
in this period, including 76 studies released after 2015. The peak year for
publications was 2020, with 13 studies, followed by 2015 with 12. The temporal
distribution of these studies is illustrated in Figure 2.
Overview of species hunted
A total of 1,578 records of
hunting from 613 bird species were derived from the 124 published articles. The
Rock Pigeon Columba livia was the most
frequently cited species in studies on bird hunting, with 55 citations. It was
followed by the House Sparrow Passer domesticus
and the Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus, each with 38 citations, and the Red
Junglefowl Gallus gallus with 27 citations.
Table 2 presents the 10 most commonly cited species in publications on bird
hunting in the region.
Around 64.3% of the hunted
species were classified as ‘Least Concern’ by the IUCN Red List of 2022 (n =
529). This was followed by 35 species classified as ‘Near Threatened’ and 26 as
‘Vulnerable’. Figure 3 represents the distribution of recorded species across
the IUCN Red List.
Spatial distribution of hunted
species
India had the highest number of
hunted species recorded with 490 species, followed by Pakistan, Nepal, and
Bangladesh as depicted in Figure 4. The one publication from Bhutan did not
provide specific species. The hunted species list often overlapped across
countries.
At a sub-national level, the
state of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India had the highest prevalence of
hunting, with 141 hunting records from 110 species. This was followed by Tamil
Nadu with 68 species, and Jammu & Kashmir with 33 species.
Correlation between number of
studies and species hunted per state
A simple linear regression was
conducted to examine the relationship between the number of publication and
number of hunted species recorded in each state. A significant positive
correlation was recorded between the number of hunted species recorded in a
state and the number of studies. Specifically, for each additional study
conducted within a state, the number of hunted species recorded in the state
increased by 9.06 species (F-statistic = 39.47, df =
(1,44), p < 0.01). The model explains
47% of the variation. This relationship is illustrated by Figure 5.
Relationship between sub-national
human development index and bird hunting
A simple linear regression
analysis was performed to assess the relationship between the SHDI and the
number of hunted species recorded in each state. The results indicated a
significant negative correlation, with the number of hunted species decreasing
as SHDI increased (F-statistic = 4.77, df = (1,44), p
< 0.05). The model accounted for 10% of the variation in the number of
hunted species. Figure 6 represents the relationship between SHDI and the
number of hunted species.
Relationship between net state
domestic production per capita and bird hunting
A linear regression analysis was
conducted to estimate the correlation between number of species hunted with the
net state domestic product per capita (USD) across each Indian state. A
negligible insignificant negative relationship was detected as NSDP per capita
only determined 0.3% of the variation in number of species hunted in each state
(F-statistic = 0.08, df = (1,44), p-value = 0.769).
Similarly, no significant correlation was detected between NSDP per capita and
number of bird hunting records in each state (F-statistic = 0.07, df = (1,44), p-value = 0.797).
Relationship between state-wise
schedule tribe population and bird hunting
A total of 92 tribal communities
were recorded to be involved in the trade, hunting, and poaching of birds
across the region. The Mughal, Sayed, Sheik, and Malik communities of Pakistan
were recorded with the highest number of species hunted (117 each).
A simple linear regression
analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the population of tribals and the number of species hunted in each state. The
analysis was limited to the ST population in each Indian state as the
state-wise population of indigenous and tribal communities of Pakistan, Nepal,
and Bangladesh were not found. Results show a very weak and insignificant
negative relationship between the number of species hunted and the ST
population (F-statistic = 0.1289, df = (1,44),
p-value = 0.722), with the model explaining only 0.4% of the variation in
species count.
Similarly, a separate linear
regression was performed to analyse the relationship
between the ST population and the number of bird hunting records in each state.
The findings indicated that the ST population accounted for only 0.2% of the
variation in hunting records, again showing an insignificant negative
relationship (F-statistic = 0.06, df = (1,44),
p-value = 0.808).
Drivers of bird hunting across
countries
A chi-squared test of
independence was conducted to examine whether the distribution of the bird use
categories varied significantly across India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.
The test revealed a highly significant difference (χ² = 415.47, df = 18, p < 0.0001), indicating that the differential
utilization of species differed significantly across countries.
The observed and expected
frequencies revealed significant deviations across specific use categories.
Pakistan recorded 190 instances of birds being used for cultural purposes,
markedly exceeding the expected count of 92.3. Similarly, India showed a
disproportionately high number of records in the pet trade (observed = 267,
expected = 198.0), and zoo trade (observed = 22, expected = 12.6). In contrast,
Bangladesh had significantly fewer records than expected across most
categories, with zero recorded instances for medicine and food, compared to the
expected 8.9 and 2.7, respectively. Lastly, Nepal demonstrated a
greater-than-expected reliance on species for medicinal (observed = 63,
expected = 35.1), and food purposes (observed = 33, expected = 10.6).
Categorization of bird uses for different purposes across countries is
illustrated in Figure 7.
Discussion
This literature review aimed to
identify the ethnozoological and socioeconomic drivers of bird hunting and
trade. Surprisingly, no correlation was found between net state domestic
production per capita and the prevalence of bird hunting across different states.
This contradicts previous studies that have linked poverty with wildlife
poaching and crime in regions such as the Serengeti (Harrison et al. 2015), the
Amazon, and the Congo Basin (Choudhury & Talukdar 2023), where bushmeat
serves as both a source of protein, and livelihood (Harrison et al. 2015;
Choudhury & Talukdar 2023). Notably, in Uganda, poverty alleviation has
been an effective tool for mitigating wildlife crime, and poaching (Rane & Datta 2015).
While this review did not
establish a direct correlation between income and hunting prevalence, findings
indicate that hunting activity decreases with an increasing SHDI. This aligns
with previous research conducted in Brazil (El Bizri
et al. 2024), Europe (Harrison et al. 2015), and central & western Africa
(Nasi et al. 2011). Moreover, this literature review found that subsistence was
not a primary driver of bird hunting in South Asia, suggesting that poverty
alleviation alone may be insufficient to curb hunting, and that broader
improvements in overall socioeconomic wellbeing are likely more effective. This
study found that factors like cultural traditions and commercial wildlife trade
were bigger drivers of bird hunting in the region.
For instance, this study found
that cultural practices was a major driver for bird hunting in Pakistan, where
traditional falconry, and sport hunting has severely impacted endangered bird
populations (Ali & Khan 2019; Kumar & Kant 2021; Muhammad et al. 2021; Sadam 2022). Meanwhile, the pet trade was identified as a
major driver of bird poaching in India and Bangladesh, surpassing its
prevalence in neighbouring countries. This aligns
with the growing concern over the commercialization of the domestic wildlife
trade and the rising exotic pet market in the region (Ahmed 1997; Singh et al.
2011; Paudel et al. 2020; Poonia
et al. 2020; Choudhury & Talukdar 2023; Hinsley et
al. 2024; Uddin 2024). The demand for birds as traditional medicine,
while existent in South Asia, was not identified as a major driver of bird
hunting in this literature review (Mahawar & Jaroli 2006; Mahaway & Jaroli 2007; Mahawar 2008; Quave et al. 2010; Rai & Singh 2015; Negi & Kandari 2017; Ataf et al. 2018;
Mughal et al. 2020; Mussarat et al. 2021; Mandal & Rahaman
2022; Shrestha & Bajracharya 2023; Bashir et al.
2023).
Interestingly, in India, bird
poaching for cultural purposes was not a major driver of bird hunting, despite
its prevalence in Arunachal Pradesh. This possibly could be attributed to India
has strict legislation, such as the Wild Life (Protection) Act (1972), and
Forest Rights Act (2008), which strictly prohibits traditional hunting
(Robinson et al. 2018). Additionally, no significant correlation was found
between the population of scheduled tribes and hunting prevalence at the state
level in India. Contrastingly, in regions, such as the Peruvian Amazon (Aiyadurai et al. 2010), Indonesia (Francesconi
et al. 2018), Malaysia (Tukuboya et al. 2024),
traditional hunting practices have contributed to drastic wildlife declines.
Similar trends have been recorded in northeastern India as well (Solanki & Chutia 2009; Solanki et al. 2004; Solanki & Chutia 2004; Aiyadurai et al.
2010; Aiyadurai 2012; Singh 2023).
A possible explanation for this
unexpected finding is the geographical bias in the reviewed publications. This
represents a limitation of the literature review, as a strong positive
correlation has been observed between the number of studies conducted and the
reported hunting prevalence across states. Notably, around 23% of the analysed studies focused on northeastern India (Lalramnghingloa 1999; Kumar & Riba
2005; Chakravoty et al. 2011; Chinlampianga
et al. 2013; Chaudhury et al. 2016; Chowdhury et al. 2017; Betlu
2022).
While traditional hunting has historically
posed a significant threat to wildlife in this region, community-led
conservation initiatives have achieved remarkable success (Dasgupta 2012;
Shepherd et al. 2023). For instance, the Pakke Paga Hornbill festival in Arunachal Pradesh and the Amur
Falcon conservation efforts in Nagaland have not only significantly reduced the
hunting of these species but also encouraged widespread community engagement in
conservation programs (Rane & Datta
2015; Smith & Lee 2024). Similarly, southern India (Dixit 2010; Chellappandian et al. 2014; Gubbi & Linkie
2015; Holennavar 2015; Vijaykumar et al. 2015;
Ramachandran et al. 2017; Sinha et al. 2023), and the province of Azad Jammu
& Kashmir in Pakistan occupied Kashmir were regions with a substantial
number of studies (Hakeem et al. 2017; Faize et al.
2022; Hassan et al. 2022; Faiz & Altaf 2024).
In contrast, only nine studies
focused on bird hunting from central and eastern Indian states, including
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West
Bengal, Telangana, and Maharashtra (Choubey 2021).
Although wildlife hunting is prevalent in central India and the Eastern Ghats,
there is limited scientific documentation in the region (Benarjee
et al. 2010; Rao et al. 2010; Bagde & Jain 2013; Misar & Subhas 2014; Mishra et al. 2020; Gajendra &
Tirkey 2020; Samal et al.
2020; Chakraborty & Mondal 2021; Sethi 2022; Patil 2022; Veena & Krishna 2023; Pandey 2024).
Provided that these states are among the poorest in India and host significant
tribal populations, bird hunting by tribal communities in India is likely to be
understated (George et al. 2014).
Additionally, a significant
temporal bias was noted in the publications. A majority (61.3%) of the studies
were published within the last 10 years, while 85.5% were published within the
last 15 years. This temporal limitation restricts the ability to analyse long-term trends in bird hunting. Moreover, it
prevents an assessment of whether critical legislative measures, such as the
Forest Rights Act and the Wildlife Conservation (Protection) Amendment Act,
have had any tangible impact on bird hunting.
While this review provides a
broad overview of trends in bird poaching, hunting, and trade, more
comprehensive studies incorporating diverse data sources are required. For instance,
data from forest departments, the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau, and wildlife
rescue centres would offer valuable insights into
bird poaching, and seizures at the local level.
Other potential sources include the CITES
database, which records the legal international trade of birds, as well as
online platforms such as social media, e-commerce websites, and news media
reports (Datta 2021), which are increasingly relevant
given the rising use of the internet for the exotic pet trade (Massocato et al. 2024). Incorporating seizure and poaching
data from these sources will be critical in developing a more holistic
understanding of the bird trade in the region. This would be particularly
useful, as through the literature review, there was negligible data extracted
on the quantity, prices, and trade routes of specimens traded for each species.
Lastly, an analysis on specific habitats, such as wetlands, and taxa, such as
cranes & parakeets, might provide useful insights, due to the prevalence of
habitat, and taxa-specific poaching (Pandit 1988; Tariq 2015; Gosai et al. 2016; Umar et al. 2018; Rehman et al. 2022;
Pandey et al. 2024).
Table 1. Number
of Publications Retrieved by Keyword:
Various keywords were applied in Google Scholar,
Web of Science and Scopus to compile information on the drivers of bird hunting and
trade in the Indian subcontinent.
|
Keyword |
Number of results |
|
Bird Trade |
13 |
|
Bird Hunting |
12 |
|
Bird Conservation |
10 |
|
Ethnopharmacology |
22 |
|
Ethnozoology |
24 |
|
Illegal Wildlife Trade |
8 |
|
Wildlife Traditional Uses |
12 |
|
Wildlife Hunting |
9 |
|
Zootherapy |
14 |
Table 2. Ten
most frequently cited species for hunting in published literature from the region. The number of citations refer
to the number
of studies that identified the hunting of
the species.
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
Order |
IUCN Red List status |
Number of citations |
|
Rock Pigeon |
Columbia livia |
Columbiformes |
Least Concern |
55 |
|
House Sparrow |
Passer domesticus |
Passeriformes |
Least Concern |
38 |
|
Indian Peafowl |
Pavo cristatus |
Galliformes |
Least Concern |
38 |
|
Red Junglefowl |
Gallus gallus |
Galliformes |
Least Concern |
27 |
|
House Crow |
Corvus splendens |
Passeriformes |
Least Concern |
21 |
|
Great Hornbill |
Buceros bicornis |
Bucerotiformes |
Vulnerable |
17 |
|
Common Mynah |
Acridotheres tristis |
Passeriformes |
Least Concern |
17 |
|
Common Quail |
Coturnix coturnix |
Galliformes |
Least Concern |
16 |
|
Spotted Dove |
Spilopelia chinensis |
Columbiformes |
Least Concern |
15 |
|
Large-billed Crow |
Corvus macrorhynchos |
Passeriformes |
Least Concern |
14 |
For
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