Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 March 2025 | 17(3): 26680–26689
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online)
| ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9591.17.3.26680-26689
#9591 | Received 30
December 2024 | Final received 10 February 2025 | Finally accepted 25 February
2025
Breeding tern
colonies on the sandbars of Adam’s Bridge, India: new records and significance
H. Byju 1, H. Maitreyi
2, N. Raveendran 3, D.A. Marshal 4 & S.
Ravichandran 5
1,2,5 Centre of Advanced
Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai,
Tamil Nadu 608502, India.
5 Department of
Zoology, Government Arts and Science College, Nagercoil,
Tamil Nadu 629004, India.
3 Iragukal
Amritha Nature Trust, 61, Ramachandra Thadaga Street, Thirumangalam,
Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625706, India.
4 Wildlife Division,
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, Ramanathapuram,
Tamil Nadu 623521, India.
1 byjuhi@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 maithgd@gmail.com, 3 iant.ravee@gmail.com,
4 dominicmarshal007@gmail.com, 5 sravicas@gmail.com
Editor: Hem Sagar Baral, Charles Sturt University, New South Wales,
Australia. Date of publication: 26 March 2025
(online & print)
Citation: Byju, H., H. Maitreyi,
N. Raveendran, D.A. Marshal & S. Ravichandran (2025). Breeding tern colonies on the sandbars of
Adam’s Bridge, India: new records and significance. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 17(3): 26680–26689. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9591.17.3.26680-26689
Copyright: © Byju et al. 2025. Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Byju H, has worked on the shorebirds and waterbirds in the Gulf of Mannar region for a decade and at present
a member of the biodiversity panel of five bird sanctuaries including four Ramsar sites and the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Maitreyi H is a research scholar working on seabirds in the region. Raveendran N is a naturalist with a decade of experience in birds and awareness education and serves as a biodiversity member in the bird sanctuaries and Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Ravichandran S is a professor with three decades of experience in marine ecology and oceanography. D.A. Marshal is a biologist in Gulf of Mannar Wildlife Division.
Author contributions: BH—conceptualization, writing, editing and supervision; MH—writing, editing, data management and maps; RN—data curation; SR—editing and overall supervision; MDA—data curation
Acknowledgements: We sincerely thank range forest officer Mahendran, the Mandapam forest staff, and the boat drivers for their dedication and support despite local risks and security challenges. Special thanks to wildlife warden Mr Jagdish Bakan, IFS, for his continuous guidance in conservation and avian biodiversity documentation, and to the coast guard officials for their assistance during our surveys.
Abstract: We conducted surveys
on the Indian side of Adam’s Bridge sandbars that separate Rameswaram Island of
India and Sri Lanka, in collaboration with the forest department. We report new
breeding colonies of five tern species: Greater Crested, Saunder’s,
Roseate, Little, and Bridled Terns. Preliminary surveys (2023) followed by
rigorous surveys (2024) confirm these sandbars as critical breeding habitats.
Keywords: Breeding colony,
Bridled Tern, central Asian flyway, Greater Crested Tern, habitat selection,
Little Tern, marine, population estimate, Roseate Tern, Saunder’s
Tern, seabirds.
Introduction
Seabirds are key indicators of marine
ecosystem changes (Schreiber & Burger 2001; Gaston 2004) due to their long
lifespans (Parsons et al. 2008) and dependence on terrestrial breeding habitats
and marine food sources (Ballance 2007). Central to marine ecological research
(Frederiksen et al. 2006; Zador et al. 2013),
seabirds reflect anthropogenic and environmental impacts, including climate
change (Barbraud et al. 2008), fisheries impact (Einoder 2009; Le Corre et al.
2012), and prey stock availability (Piatt et al.
2007; Lyday et al. 2015) supporting marine conservation
efforts (Bibby et al. 2012).
Terns (family Sternidae)
are a globally distributed seabird group comprising over 40 species (Gochfeld & Burger 1996); 19 are recorded within Indian
borders (Praveen et al. 2016). Nine species breed along Indian coasts and
sandbars (Mondreti et al. 2013) underscoring the
ecological significance. Historical reports on seabird breeding including
Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii (Abdulali 1942), Black-naped Tern Sterna
sumatrana (Blyth 1846; Abdulali
1942, 1967), Bridled Tern Onychoprion anaethetus, Sooty Tern Onychoprion
fuscata, Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus
bengalensis and Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica
(Abdulali 1942), primarily reported from the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, with Sooty Tern (Kurup &
Zacharias 1994; Mathew et al. 1991) from Lakshadweep Island. Breeding of Little
Terns (Balachandran et al. 2005; Li et al. 2009), Gull-billed Terns (Abdulali 1942; Balachandran et al. 2005; Li et
al. 2009), and Whiskered Terns (Li et
al. 2009) were recorded from Chilika Lake; Gull-billed Terns in Kolleru
and Godavari (Li et al. 2009) and Sundarbans (Stanford 1937); Greater Crested
Terns in Sundarbans (Li et al. 2009); and Whiskered Terns in Karavetti, Vettakudi and Thenpakkam (Li et al. 2009). In Sri Lanka, Saunders’s, Little,
Greater Crested and Bridled Terns breed in the Adam’s Bridge (Panagoda et al. 2020).
On Rameswaram Island, earlier breeding records of Roseate Tern, Bridled
Tern, Lesser Crested Tern, Little Tern (Abdulali
1942), and Greater Crested Tern (Stanford 1937) lacked detailed evidence. This
study provides the first comprehensive documentation of breeding colonies of
Bridled Tern, Saunder’s Tern, Little Tern, Greater
Crested Tern and Roseate Tern in the sandbars of Adam’s Bridge, Gulf of Mannar (GoM), India.
Methods
Study Area and Surveys
Raam Sethu, also known in some literature as Adam’s
Bridge, is a chain of sandbars connecting Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India,
to Sri Lanka, and lies within the Gulf of Mannar
Marine Biosphere Reserve. Approximately 8 km south-east of Arichalmunai,
near the Sri Lankan maritime boundary, these sandbars (designated I to VII)
remain largely isolated due to restricted access. The reserve supports regional
endemic breeding species like Hanuman Plover Charadrius
seebohmi (Byju et al.
2023; Niroshan et al. 2023), rare migratory species
Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus and Pomarine Skua Stercorarius
pomarinus (Byju &
Raveendran 2022a; Byju et al. 2024) and unusual
vagrants like Light-mantled Albatross Phoebetria
palpebrata (Byju &
Raveendran 2022b). Sandbar VII is approximately 2.5 km in length and 1.5 km in
width and consists of habitats like sand dunes, and shallow seawater pools.
Sand bar III was smaller at 600 m long and 250 m wide (Image 1).
As part of a long-term coastal bird
monitoring program, surveys were conducted using boats on all the sandbars except
sandbar VII where surveys were conducted on foot due to extensive breeding
activity. Surveys on Sandbar VII (9.116 N 79.510 E), from June to August 2024,
focused on breeding Greater Crested Terns and other tern species. In total,
five teams were formed that consisted of forest personnel and researchers and
surveys were conducted simultaneously covering different sections from 0900 h
to 1500 h. Breeding populations were estimated using total counts of active
nests and direct observations of adult birds within colonies using Nikon
binoculars (10 x 50) and Vanguard spotting scopes (14 x 70). The point counts
were done in a radius of 100 m each, with each point observed for 15 minutes at
randomly selected times as the breeding season coincided with tidal currents
not engulfing the sandbar nesting areas on elevated dunes. Aerial (count of the
number of birds rising into the air upon our approach) and territory counts
(count of the number of nests/adults within colonies) were corroborated with
photographs and video recordings to countercheck the estimation process (Surman & Nicholson 2009). The breeding adults did not
leave the nests, other than for short periods while disturbed briefly for
aerial and territory counts.
Data from Sandbar VII included active nest
counts, qualitative description of the microhabitat, and observation of eggs
and chicks. Disturbances, such as human activity or predation threats were
noted. This methodology minimized disturbance while ensuring data collection,
providing critical insights into tern breeding ecology in the GoM.
Results and Discussion
Breeding was confined to sandbars III and VII
(Image 1), with Sandbar VII hosting the largest colony of breeding terns.
Possibly, the size, water currents and other human disturbances might be the
possible reasons of terns avoiding other sandbars for breeding. A total of 16
species of waterbirds was recorded during our surveys
(Appendix 1).
Observations from sandbar III and VII
Sandbar III
A colony of 250–300 nests of Greater Crested
Tern were found. Little Terns, Brown Noddy (Image
11), and Lesser Noddy (image 12) were observed, even
though no other nesting terns could be recorded.
Sandbar VII
Sandbar VII is characterized by sparse
vegetation, including grasses (<0.15 m tall), Sesuvium
and Ipomea pes-caprae
that cover the sandy beaches where terns nest. Estimated adult tern populations
included 12,000 Greater Crested Terns, 600 Bridled Terns, 400 Roseate Terns,
220 Saunder’s Terns, and 80 Little Terns, supported
by nest counts and photo and videographic evidence
(Image 2A).
Greater Crested Tern: An
estimated 2,500–3,200 nests were recorded in five different colonies (two major
and three minor). Major colonies were approximately 500 m apart, while the
minor colonies were separated approximately 200 m from the major colonies
(Image 2B). Greater Crested Terns nested densely on elevated barren sand dunes
with minimal vegetation (Image 3A) away from other species except for
occasional Bridled Terns. Nests were simple depressions, rarely larger (~200 ×
170 mm). Most contained one egg (Image 3B), occasionally two. By late July,
hundreds of chicks were observed within the colony (Image 3C).
Bridled Tern: Approximately 200–210 nests were found
within vegetation as reported earlier (Cramp et al. 1985; Hulsman & Langham 1985; Villard & Bretagnolle 2010), particularly under Ipomea
pes-caprae and grasses (Image 4A). The
vegetation provided shade and protection from predators and other unfavourable
physical variables like wind, improving nesting success (Al-Fazari
& Victor 2014). The species’ nesting habits and habitats align with
findings elsewhere (Higgins & Davies 1996; Chatto
2001). Nests, typically concealed in the vegetation, contained a single egg
(Image 4B), consistent with studies in Australia (Nicholson 2002) and New
Caledonia (Villard & Bretagnolle 2010). Chicks
were observed in late July (Image 4C).
Roseate Tern: Approximately 150–180 nests were found on the
less elevated sand dunes (compared to the Greater Crested Terns) among Sesuvium plants with higher nest densities
(Image 5A) than Bridled Terns. Nest sites ranged from scrapes with sparse
vegetation to exposed concave depressions. Clutches contained 1–4 eggs (Image
5B), consistent with previous studies (Gochfeld et
al. 1998). Hatching occurred in early July and the feeding of chicks was
observed in late July (Image 5C).
Saunder’s Tern: Approximately, 95–105 nests (Image 6A) were found among the Sesuvium plants consisting of unlined
depressions on sandy ridges shaped by wind. Eggs were sandy in colour with
brown blotches and lines (Image 6B). Roseate and Little Terns often nested near
each other, with simple scrapes on sandy dunes surrounded by sparse vegetation
or marine debris. Egg counts per nest varied between 1–2 and chicks were
observed as early July (Image 6C). Nesting habitats, clutch sizes, and egg
patterns align with previous studies (Panagoda et al.
2020).
Little Tern: Approximately, 30–35 nests were recorded
(Image 7A), consisting of bare ground scrapes in sand. Clutch sizes ranged 2–3
eggs (Cheah & Ng 2008), with eggs showing olive-green or grey backgrounds
and brown spotting (Image 7B) (Wait 1931; Baker 1935; Henry 1998). Chicks were
observed in July (Image 7C).
Divergent nest-site selection and ecological
requirements among closely related waterbird species
breeding in mixed colonies likely serve as adaptive strategies to avoid
interspecific competition (Burger & Gochfeld
1988; Chen et al. 2011) as the elevated sand dunes were used by Greater Crested
Terns, and Bridled Tern nested on the edges with vegetation. On our
observations, the major colonies were separated at a farther distance than the
minor colonies. For colonial breeders, inter-nest distance may reflect
nest-site selection or an anti-predation strategy with larger terns breeding in
denser colonies than smaller species as in the case of Greater Crested Terns
and other breeding terns (Burger & Gochfeld 1988;
Gochfeld & Burger 1996). Intensive nest surveys
during peak breeding season revealed the presence of eggs and chicks, although
hatching success and the count of chicks could not be determined due to
logistical limitations. Sandbars III and VII support an estimated 4,000
breeding tern pairs likely representing the largest mixed breeding colonies in
the southern peninsula of India. Their isolation from limited human disturbance
makes them critical nesting habitats. However, climate change threatens food
resources and population dynamics. For example, a local fisherman informed of
the loss of vegetative cover (were in abundance in the past) largely after a
major storm that hit a decade ago highlighting the need for long-term
monitoring to assess these and several other impacts (Colwell 2010; Hu et al.
2010; Rashiba et al. 2022).
Potential Threats and Conservation measures
We observed several dead bird carcasses from
the colonies but could not confirm the reason of death (Images 8 A–C). While
human interference is minimal, with rare boat visits to the sandbars by local
fishermen, poaching of eggs and sometimes birds were recorded during the
surveys. Fishermen or poachers from the Sri Lankan side transgress the Indian
sandbar VII to collect eggs and birds using speed boats (Images 9 A&B).
Local fishermen of Rameswaram Island also reported consuming tern eggs.
Pollution is another threat with sand dunes in the area covered in fishing gear
(including nests), plastic bottles, clothes, and household waste (Images 10
A&B). Labels on some of these waste materials indicate origins mostly from
other parts of southern India, and Sri Lanka. Though hovercraft marks were
visible on some sandbars, coast guard hovercraft did not directly threaten tern
colonies, as interactions indicated awareness of the breeding areas.
The nesting habitats on Sandbar III and VII,
hosting the southern peninsular India’s largest colonies of Greater Crested
Terns and other tern species, face significant threats from poaching and
disturbance. Poachers from across the border and Indian fishermen consume tern
eggs. Mitigation efforts should focus on raising awareness and fostering
collaboration between the wildlife department and security agencies. Steps have
been initiated with security agencies highlighting them with need of not
overrunning the nesting populations during breeding time. Conservation measures
must also consider the region’s sensitivity as an international border, where
disputes between the Sri Lankan Navy and Indian fishermen, underscore its
importance for biodiversity.
The ecological importance of terns, as well
as their sensitivity to environmental perturbations, highlights the need for
comprehensive future studies to verify and monitor these breeding populations,
particularly given their role as indicators of marine health. Such coastal
biodiversity is crucial in maintaining and preserving the ecological integrity
and balance within these regions.
FOR
IMAGES - - CLICK HERE FOR FULL PDF
References
Abdulali, H. (1942). The distribution of the Rosy tern. Journal
of the Bombay Natural History Society 43: 104.
Abdulali, H. (1967). The birds of Nicobar Islands. Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society 64: 139–190.
Al-Fazari, W.A.
& R. Victor (2014).
Observations on the nesting ecology of seabirds in Al-Daymaniat
Islands, Sultanate of Oman. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental
Sciences 40(4): 219–224.
Baker, E.C.S. (1935). The nidification
of birds of the Indian Empire (Vol. IV). Taylor & Francis,
London, 546 pp.
Balachandran, S., A.R. Rahmani
& P. Sathiyaselvam (2005). Habitat evaluation of Chilika
Lake with special reference to birds as bioindicators. Final Report (2001–2005)
of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 141 pp.
Ballance, L.T. (2007). Understanding seabirds at sea: Why and
how? Marine Ornithology 35: 127–135.
Barbraud, C., C. Marteau, V. Ridoux,
K. Delord & H. Weimerskirch
(2008). Demographic response of a
population of white-chinned petrels Procellaria
aequinoctialis to climate and longline fishery
bycatch. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 1460–1467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01537.x
Bibby, C.J., N.D. Burgess & D.A. Hill
(2012). Bird census techniques.
Academic Press, London, UK, 257 pp.
Blyth, E. (1846). Notes on the fauna of the Nicobar Islands—Reptilia. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
15: 367–379.
Burger, J. & M. Gochfeld
(1988). Nest-site selection and
temporal patterns in habitat use of Roseate and Common Terns. Auk 105:
433–438. https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/105.3.433
Byju, H. & N. Raveendran (2022a). First record of Arctic Skua from Rameswaram
Island, the southeastern coast of India. Bird-o-soar
#180, In: Zoo’s Print 37(9): 39–40.
Byju, H. & N. Raveendran (2022 b). First Asian record of Light-mantled
Albatross Phoebetria palpebrata
(Foster, 1785) from Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 14(7): 21473–21475. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7992.14.7.21473-21475
Byju, H., N. Raveendran, S. Ravichandran & R. Kishore
(2023). Additional Breeding
records of Hanuman Plover Charadrius seebohmi, Hartert & A.C.
Jackson, 1915 (Aves: Charadriiformes: Charadriidae) from southeastern
coast of India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(4): 23114–23118. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8317.15.4.23114-23118
Byju, H., H. Maitreyi,
S. Ravichandran & N. Raveendran (2024). Avifaunal diversity and conservation significance of coastal ecosystems
on Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 16(12):
26198–26212. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9248.16.12. 26198–26212.
Chatto, R. (2001). The distribution and status of colonial breeding seabirds in the Northern
Territory. Report 70 of the Parks and Wildlife Commission of the NT, Darwin,
Australia, 206 pp.
Cheah, J.W.K. & A. Ng (2008). Breeding ecology of the
little tern, Sterna albifrons pallas, 1764 in Singapore.
Nature in singapore 1: 69–73.
Chen, S., Z. Fan., C. Chen & Y. Lu
(2011). The breeding biology of
Chinese Crested Terns in mixed species colonies in eastern China. Bird
Conservation International 21: 266–273. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270910000547
Colwell, M.A. (2010). Shorebird ecology, conservation, and
management. University of California Press, 344 pp.
Cramp, S., K. Simmons, D. Brooks, N. Collar,
E. Dunn, R. Gillmor & M. Ogilvie (1985). Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa,
The Birds of the Western Palearctic: Vol.3. Waders to Gulls. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, UK, 577 pp.
Einoder, L.D. (2009). A review of the use of seabirds as
indicators in fisheries and ecosystem management. Fisheries Research 95:
6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2008.09.024
Frederiksen, M., M. Edwards, A.J. Richardson,
N.C. Halliday & S. Wanless (2006). From plankton to top predators: Bottom-up
control of a marine food web across four trophic levels. Journal of Animal
Ecology 75: 1259–1268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01148.x
Gaston, A. (2004). Seabirds: A Natural History. Yale
University Press, 222 pp.
Gochfeld, M. & J. Burger (1996). Family Sternidae
(Terns), pp. 624–643. In: del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott
& J. Sargatal (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of
the World. Volume 3. Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Editions, Barcelona, 821 pp.
Gochfeld, M., J. Burger & I.C.T. Nisbet (1998). Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii).
In: Poole, A. & F. Gill (eds.). The Birds of North America. Number
370. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, and American
Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C., USA, 196 pp.
Henry, G.M. (1998). A Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka.
Oxford University Press, New York, 219 pp.
Higgins, P.J. & S.J.J.F. Davies (1996). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and
Antarctic Birds. Volume Three - Snipe to Pigeons. Oxford University Press,
Melbourne, Australia, 1086 pp.
Hu,
J., H. Hu & Z. Jiang (2010). The impacts of climate change
on the wintering distribution of
an endangered migratory bird. Oecologia 164:
555–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-010-1732-z
Hulsman, K. & N. Langham (1985). Breeding biology of the Bridled tern Sterna
anaethetus. Emu 85(4): 240−249. https://doi.org/10.1071/MU9850240
Kurup, D.K.N. & V.J. Zacharias (1994). Birds of Lakshadweep Islands. Forktail 10: 49–64.
Le Corre, M., A.
Jaeger, P. Pinet, M. Kappes,
H. Weimerskirch, T. Catry,
J.A. Ramos, J.C. Russell, N. Shah & S. Jaquemet
(2012). Tracking seabirds to
identify potential Marine protected areas in the tropical western Indian Ocean.
Biological Conservation 156: 83–93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.015
Li, Z.W.D., A. Bloem,
S. Delany, G. Martakis & J.O. Quintero (2009). Status of Waterbirds
in Asia—Results of the Asian Waterbird Census:
1987–2007. Wetlands International, Kuala Lumpur, 35 pp.
Lyday, S.E., L.T. Ballance, D.B. Field & K.D. Hyrenbach (2015). Shearwaters as ecosystem indicators: Towards fishery-independent
metrics of fish abundance in the California Current. Journal of Marine
Systems 146: 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2014.08.010
Mathew, D.N., T. Gandhi, V. Santharam, V.J. Rajan & G.
Mathew (1991). An
ornithological expedition to the Lakshadweep archipelago: Assessment of threats
to pelagic and other birds and recommendations. Indian Birds 3(1):
2–12.
Mondreti, R., P. Davidar,
C. Peron & D. Gremillet (2013). Seabirds in the Bay of Bengal large marine
ecosystem: Current Knowledge and research objectives. Open Journal of
Ecology 3(2): 172–184. https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2013.32021
Nicholson, L. (2002). Breeding strategies and community structure
in an assemblage of tropical seabirds on the Lowendal
Islands, Western Australia. Ph.D. Thesis, Murdoch University, Australia, 355
pp.
Niroshan, J.J., Y. Liu, J. Martinez, P. Que, C. Wei,
S. Weerakkody, G. Panagoda,
J. Weerasena, T.A.A. Amarasinghe,
T. Szekely, A.L. Bond & S.S. Seneviratne
(2023). Systematic revision of
the ‘diminutive’ Kentish Plover (Charadriidae: Charadrius) with the resurrection of Charadrius seebohmi based on phenotypic and
genetic analyses. Ibis 165(4): 1296–1317. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.13220
Panagoda, B.G., S.S. Seneviratne, S. Kotagama & Welikala
(2020). Sympatric breeding
of two endangered
Sternula terns, Saunders’s
S. saundersi and Little S. albifrons Terns, in the Rama’s
Bridge of Sri Lanka. Birding
ASIA 34: 80–87.
Parsons,
M., I. Mitchell, A. Butler, N. Ratcliffe, M. Frederiksen, S. Foster & J.B. Reid (2008). Seabirds
as indicators of the marine
environment. Journal of
Marine Science 65: 1520–1526. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsn155
Piatt, J.F., W.J. Sydeman
& F. Wiese (2007). Introduction:
a modern role for seabirds
as indicators. Marine Ecology
Progress Series 352: 199–204. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07070
Praveen, J., R. Jayapal & A. Pittie (2016). A checklist
of the birds of India. Indian BIRDS 11 (5&6): 113–172.
Rashiba, A.P., K. Jishnu, H. Byju, C.T. Shifa, J. Anand, K. Vichithra, Y.
Xu, A. Nefla, S.B. Muzaffar,
K.M. Aarif & K.A. Rubeena
(2022). The paradox of shorebird
diversity and abundance in
the West Coast and East Coast of
India: a comparative analysis. Diversity 14(10): 885. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14100885
Schreiber,
E.A. & J. Burger (2001). Biology of Marine Birds. CRC Press, 740 pp.
Stanford,
J.K. (1937). On the breeding of the
Oyster catcher (Haematopus ostralegus
sub sp.) and other birds in the Bengal Sunderbans. Journal
of the Bombay Natural History Society 39: 867–868.
Surman, C.A. & L.W.
Nicholson (2009). A Survey of the breeding seabirds and migratory shorebirds of the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia. Corella
33(4): 81–98.
Villard, P. & V. Bretagnolle
(2010). Breeding Biology of the
Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) in New
Caledonia. Waterbirds 33: 246–250.
Wait, W.E. (1931). Manual of the birds of Ceylon. Second
edition. Colombo Museum, Colombo, 404 pp.
Zador, S., G.L. Hunt, T. Tenbrink & K. Aydin (2013). Combined seabird
indices show lagged
relationships between environmental
conditions and breeding activity. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 485: 245–258. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10336
Appendix I. Complete
list of seabirds and shorebirds observed around the nesting habitat on
the sand bars in the Adam’s Bridge.
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
IUCN Red List
status |
|
Greater Crested
Tern |
Thalasseus bergii |
LC |
|
Little Tern |
Sternula albifrons |
LC |
|
Roseate Tern |
Sterna dougallii |
LC |
|
Bridled Tern |
Onychoprion anaethetus |
LC |
|
Lesser Crested Tern |
Thalasseus bengalensis |
LC |
|
Saunder's Tern |
Sternula saundersi |
LC |
|
Sooty Tern |
Onychoprion fuscatus |
LC |
|
Caspian Tern |
Hydroprogne caspia |
LC |
|
Lesser Noddy |
Anous tenuirostris |
LC |
|
Brown Noddy |
Anous stolidus |
LC |
|
Arctic Skua |
Stercorarius parasiticus |
LC |
|
Brown Skua |
Stercorarius antarcticus |
LC |
|
Slender-billed Gull |
Chroicocephalus genei |
LC |
|
Heuglin's Gull |
Larus fuscus heuglini |
LC |
|
Ruddy Turnstone |
Arenaria interpres |
NT |
|
Greater Sand Plover |
Charadrius leschenaulti |
LC |
|
Intermediate Egret |
Ardea intermedia |
LC |
|
Grey Heron |
Ardea cinerea |
LC |
LC—Least Concern |
NT—Near Threatened.