Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2024 | 16(12): 26198–26212
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online)
| ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9248.16.12.26198-26212
#9248 | Received 29 June
2024 | Final received 11 October 2024 | Finally accepted 22 November 2024
Avifaunal diversity
and conservation significance of coastal ecosystems on Rameswaram Island, Tamil
Nadu, India
H. Byju 1,
H. Maitreyi 2, S. Ravichandran 3 & N. Raveendran
4
1,2,3 Centre of Advanced
Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu
608502, India.
3 Department of
Zoology, Government Arts and Science College, Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu 629004,
India.
4 Iragukal Amritha
Nature Trust, 61, Ramachandra Thadaga Street, Thirumangalam, Madurai, Tamil
Nadu 625706, India.
1 byjuhi@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 maithgd@gmail.com, 3 sravicas@gmail.com, 4 iantravee@gmail.com
Editor: Anil Kumar, Zoological Survey of India,
Patna, India. Date of publication: 26 December
2024 (online & print)
Citation: Byju, H., H. Maitreyi, S. Ravichandran & N. Raveendran (2024). Avifaunal diversity and conservation
significance of coastal ecosystems on Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 16(12): 26198–26212. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.9248.16.12.26198-26212
Copyright: © Byju et al. 2024. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The Integrated Development of Wildlife habitats during 2023–2024 in
Wildlife division, Ramanathapuram forest division.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Byju, H., has worked on the shorebirds and waterbirds in
the Gulf of Mannar region for a decade and at present a member of the
biodiversity panel of five bird sanctuaries including two Ramsar sites and the
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Maitreyi, H., is a research scholar working on
seabirds in the region. Raveendran, N., is a naturalist with a decade of
experience in birds and awareness education and serves as a biodiversity member
in the bird sanctuaries and Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve. Ravichandran, S., is a professor with three decades
of experience in marine ecology and oceanography.
Author contributions: BH—conceptualization, writing, editing and supervision, MH—writing,
editing, data management and maps, RN—data curation; SR—editing and overall
supervision.
Acknowledgements: We are grateful to
the Integrated Development of Wildlife habitats during 2023–2024 in Wildlife
division, Ramanathapuram for partially funding this project particularly to the
chairman of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Trust and wildlife warden, Gulf of Mannar
Biosphere Reserve Mr. Bakan Jagdish Sudhakar, I.F.S. for his valuable
suggestions & cooperation in implementing the project. We also thank Mr.
Mahendran, range officer and his support staff including foresters, guards, and
the APWs of the Mandapam Range for their support in helping the field works
including hospitality & logistics during several occasions. We appreciate
the help rendered by the administrative staff of Ramanathapuram Wildlife Warden
Office.
Abstract: Biodiversity-rich
areas tied to heritage, religious tourism, and ecotourism, often face changes
to their landscapes due to infrastructure development. Such activities may
threaten the species survival and disrupt the delicate ecosystems in these
regions. Hence it becomes imperative to build up baseline species data from
such areas for biodiversity conservation and management interventions. Towards
achieving this objective, avifaunal inventories were documented from
Kothandaramar Lagoon, Dhanushkodi Lagoon, and the Arichalmunai beach in
Rameswaram Island, Ramanathapuram
District, Tamil Nadu, which is an important site for winter migrants. A
total of 147 avian species belonging to 17 orders and 45 families from August
2021 to July 2023 were recorded. Order-wise, Charadriiformes (52 species)
dominated the area, followed by Passeriformes (27 species) and Pelecaniformes
(21 species). According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 11
‘Near Threatened’, three ‘Vulnerable’, two ‘Endangered’ (Great Knot Calidris
tenuirostris and Siberian Sandplover Anarhynchus mongolus),
and one unassessed species (Hanuman Plover Charadrius seebohmi) were
recorded. The relative abundance based on the frequency of observations
indicated that 61% (90 species) were common, 22% (32 species) were uncommon,
and 17% (25 species) were rare. Winter visitors constituted 42% (62 species)
and one was a passage migrant (Rosy Starling Pastor roseus). Coastal lagoons of this region comprise diverse habitats that play a vital role for
birds, which provide places for nesting, roosting, and foraging. This baseline
data emphasizes the importance of Dhanushkodi Lagoon along with adjacent areas
as an important wintering site on the southeastern coast of India for migratory
shorebirds as well as highlights the importance of adjoining small forested
patches thus required to be declared as a protected area.
Keywords: Bird migration,
Central Asian Flyway, Gulf of Mannar, Hanuman Plover breeding, over-summering, shorebirds,
waterbirds, winter visitors.
Introduction
India is home to
numerous biodiversity hotspots including those designated as Ramsar sites
(Sandilyan 2017). Wetlands including coastal lagoons, characterized by shallow
water bodies separated by natural barriers like sandbars or coral reefs support
diverse avifauna, both migratory and resident (Chandana et al. 2012; Silva et
al. 2013). Coastal lagoons are critical habitats for migratory shorebirds
such as mudflats, beaches, or mangroves (Alfaro & Clara 2007).
Migratory shorebirds are a global indicator species for habitat changes
(Piersma & Lindstrom 2004). As India experiences a massive economic boom,
many unprotected areas are under severe strain on landscape changes and
biodiversity loss, and many of these areas lack biodiversity documentation to understand
the actual loss. Documentation of avifaunal diversity and distribution in India
(Ali & Ripley 1987) has played a pivotal role in assessing long-term
landscape changes (Rika & Santosa 2007). Bird surveys represent a valuable
tool in gathering pertinent information and aid in identifying priority
conservation sites (Peterson et al. 2000) as the structural composition of
bird communities within an area provides invaluable insights into landscape
changes over time (Kattan & Franco 2004). This comprehensive understanding
has facilitated ecological assessments and conservation planning efforts (Kati
& Sekercioglu 2006), leading to the development of management strategies
and interventions (Paul & Cooper 2005).
The Ramanathapuram
District in Tamil Nadu harbours five bird sanctuaries, including two Ramsar
sites and the Gulf of Mannar (GoM) Biosphere Reserve, an Important Bird and
Biodiversity Area (IBA). Recent records of an Arctic Skua Stercorarius
parasiticus (Byju & Raveendran 2022a) and an uncommon sighting of a
Light-mantled Albatross Phoebetria palpebrate (Byju & Raveendran
2022b) underscore the importance of bird monitoring efforts in the island. It
also highlights the necessity of conducting field surveys to establish bird
population data in new or adjoining areas of well-established bird congregation
sites (Llanos et al. 2011). Extensive research and conservation interventions
will help manage threats like pollution, habitat loss, hunting, disturbance, or
impact of climate change. Several reports emphasized that habitat destruction
is one of the vital reasons for the decline of waterbirds (Brooks et al. 2002;
Sandilyan et al. 2010). Coastal wetlands of tropical countries including India,
face impounding anthropogenic pressures, leading to the rapid loss of these
ecosystems. Most of such pressures are related to the conversion of the
coastal wetlands for agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, transport,
construction, and disposal of industrial wastes and untreated sewage
(Prasad et al. 2002; Bassi et al. 2014). Avifaunal updates from the
district include documentation from the 21 islands within the GoM (Byju et al.
2023a) and identification of a new wintering sites within the Karangadu Mangroves (Byju et al. 2023b) and Valinokkam
Lagoon (Byju et al. 2023c). Through intensive monitoring, three breeding sites
of the new taxon, i.e., Hanuman Plover Charadrius seebohmi from the
Kentish Plover subspecies Charadrius alexandrinus seebohmi have been
discovered in the district (Byju et al. 2023d), which encompasses the current
study area.
The mentioned
findings from the region underscore the importance of gathering baseline data
from previously unexplored regions to designate areas of conservation
significance. Consequently, the present study on the Kothandaramar Lagoon, Dhanushkodi
Lagoon, and Arichalmunai Beach in Rameswaram Island was devised to compile an
avifaunal checklist since this is an important bird congregation place for long
distant migrant shorebirds on the GoM region in the Central Asian Flyway (CAF)
(Rashiba et al. 2022) and the findings will contribute to declare it as a
protected area. Additionally, our additional objectives of the study include
the impact of tourism on the coastal areas by vehicles and plastic waste
disposal by the visitors (religious, heritage, and ecotourism initiatives).
Materials and Methods
Study Area
The study area
extended from the Rameswaram Reserve Forest up to Arichalmunai Beach
encompassing the 15 km long Dhanushkodi Lagoon (Image 1). It consists of the
Kothandaramar Lagoon, Dhanushkodi Lagoon, and Arichalmunai Beach, which
hereafter is referred to as Dhanushkodi Lagoon (9.15–9.27 N &
79.32–79.44 E). This area includes zones that are muddy and flooded with rain
water during winter months like Kothandaramar Lagoon which is surrounded
by the Bay of Bengal and GoM, having saline water which leads to
plenty of phytoplankton including diatoms, dinoflagellates, and blue green
algae. It provides a foraging ground for flamingos. The Arichalmunai part is
exclusively marine earlier with sandy beaches but some muddy substratum of late
becoming sandier; the central part near Mukundarayar Chatram and Dhanushkodi is
a mixture of sandy clay and thus intermediate between the other two zones.
Field Surveys
In Dhanushkodi
Lagoon, field surveys were conducted monthly from August 2021 to July 2023. The
surveys focused on observing bird activity during the peak hours, at 0600–1000
h and 1600–1800 h. The methodology employed a combination of block count
and direct visual count methods (Howes & Bakewell 1989; Bibby et al. 2000).
Eleven vantage points (Image 1) were identified along the entire stretch of the
lagoon considering the consistent water availability and congregation patterns,
with distances ranging 600–1,500 m
starting from the forested patch. Observations were conducted using
Nikon binoculars (10 x 50) and photographs were taken with a Canon camera with
100–400 mm lens and later identified with the help of field guides (Grimmett et
al. 2011; Hayman et al. 2011). Since this is a 15-km long stretch with
different tidal variations, survey were conducted during low tides when the
maximum bird activity was there, mainly for waterbirds. A 5-min setting period
was observed at each vantage point to allow the waterbirds to settle down to
the human presence. Land birds were recorded as and when it was observed at
each vantage point for 15 min. The observations recorded while moving from one
vantage point to another were entered as incidental records. The residential
status of the birds was grouped as resident (R), resident/
non-breeding (R/NB), passage migrant (PM), and winter visitor (WV)
depending on their timing and duration of occurrence (Grimmett et al. 2011).
The common name, scientific name, and IUCN Red List status are followed (IUCN
2024). The relative abundance of species was based on the frequency of
observation as common (C): frequently observed in the study area (encountered
on most visits 6–8/10 visits); uncommon (UC): spotted on multiple occasions but
not as frequently as in the case of common (encountered less than 3–5/10
visits); rare (R): less frequently encountered in the entire study period
(encountered 1–2/10 visits) (Mackinnon & Philips 1993).
To understand the
impact on the number of tourists visiting the Arichalmunai region of the
island, the number of tourist vehicles
and the local vehicles plying on the road were counted, with the help of the
forest department from the forest check post exclusively for plastic usage
deterrence in the area. An average of 300 tourist vehicles plies were found
along with 200 local vehicles to Kothandaramar Temple (religious tourism) and
beyond to Arichalmunai (beach drive) every weekday (Image 12). This increased
up to 700 during weekends with 300 local vehicles (total 1,000). Assuming a
vehicle can accommodate an average of four people (a tourist van
can hold up to 15), the number of tourists could be 2,000–4,000 individuals per
day/week and up to 800,000/year. The area is restricted for tourists after
1800h and a few fishermen community stay there overnight, for fishing
purposes.
Results and Discussion
A total of 147 avian species across 17 orders
and 45 families from the study area (Table 1) (Images 2–8) were recorded. Order
Charadriiformes was the most dominant (52 species), represented by families of
Scolopacidae (25 species), Laridae (17 species), and Charadriidae (10 species).
The other major representation of orders was Passeriformes (27 species),
Pelecaniformes (21 species), and Accipitriformes (10 species) (Figure 1). The residential
status of the birds revealed that winter visitors (WV) constituted 42% (62
species) and one (i.e., Rosy Starling Pastor roseus) was passage migrant
(PM). Three species of local migrants (LM) recorded, were Western Reef Egret Egretta
gularis, White-bellied Sea Eagle Icthyophaga leucogaster, and
Oriental Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus. Among the avifauna
recorded, 54 species constituted 36.7% of residents (R), and 26
species (17.6%) were residents but non-breeding (R/NB). The relative abundance
based on the frequency of observation indicated that 90 species (61.2%) were
common, 32 species (21.7%) were uncommon, and 25 species (17%) were rare.
The arrival of
migrants usually begins in the first week of August and departure of migrants
extend till the last week of April to the first week of May. Family
Stercorariidae with two exclusive seabirds, Arctic Skua Sterocorarius
parasiticus and Pomarine Skua Sterocorarius pomarinus; rare seabirds
like Flesh-footed Shearwater Ardenna carneipes; and rare shorebirds like
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus were recorded during the
migratory period. Among the Laridae family, Bridled Tern Onychoprion
anaethetus, Sooty Tern Onychocommonprion fuscatus, and White-winged
Tern Chilidonias leucopterus are the highlighted (rare) species from the
study area. Eleven ‘Near Threatened’ (NT) species were documented during the
study period, all of which are waterbirds or shorebirds: Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa
lapponica, Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa, Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria
interpres, Dunlin Calidris alpina, Eurasian Curlew Numenius
arquata, Great Stone-curlew Esacus recurvirostris, Red-necked Stint Calidris
ruficollis, Red Knot Calidris canutus, Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus
philippensis, Flesh-footed Shearwater Ardenna carneipes, and Beach
Stone- Curlew Esacus magnirostri; three ‘Vulnerable’ species
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea, Broad-billed Sandpiper Calidris
falcinellus, and Black-bellied Plover Pluvialis squatarola;
two ‘Endangered’ (EN) Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris and Siberian
Sandplover Anarhynchus mongolus; one unassessed Hanuman Plover;
and the rest of 130 species were in the ‘Least Concern’ (LC) category according
to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
It is evident from
the study that 62 species of winter migrants visited or occupied the area
during the migratory period. This is one of the best waterbird congregation
sites during the migratory season in the Gulf of Mannar region (Rashiba et al.
2022). Similar studies on the eastern coast of India were recorded in
Valinokkam Lagoon (Byju et al. 2023c) with 154 species of birds, of which 35
were shorebirds and 58 species were winter visitors, and, Karangadu mangroves
(Byju et al. 2023b) with 107 species of birds, of which 18 were shorebirds and
15 species were winter visitors. Findings from Pulicat Lagoon by Alam et al.
(2023), the second-largest brackish water lagoon on the east coast of India,
also complement these findings with the record of 52 species of winter
visitors. The maximum counts as one-time peak counts of a few species of
shorebirds, gulls, and terns were recorded during the study period (Table 2), along with
the global population size and population trend of each species for a
better understanding.
From the
observations, the following are the shorebird species that were dominant in the
region: Siberian Sandplover Anarhynchus mongolus, Curlew Sandpiper Calidris
ferruginea, Greater Sandplover Anarhyncus leschenaultii, and Kentish
Plover Anarhynchus alexandrinus. This is in line with previous studies
carried out on the eastern coast of India at Point Calimere (Balachandran
2006), Chilika (Balachandran et al. 2020), and Valinokkam (Byju et al. 2023c).
A study by Balachandran (1998) showed that Greater Sandplover is found in abundance
only in GoM on the eastern coast compared to the western coast of India. Byju
et al (2023e) observed Siberian Sandplover, Curlew Sandpiper, and Little Stint
as the most abundant shorebirds on the Manoli Island of GoM.
Family Laridae was
represented by six species of gulls and 11 species of terns. The gull species
recorded are Slender-billed Gull Chroicocephalus genei, Black-headed
Gull Chroicocephalus ridibundus, Brown-headed Gull Chroicocephalus
brunnicephalus, Pallas’s Gull Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus, Steppe Gull Larus
barabensis, and Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus. Of these, the
most dominant ones were Brown-headed and Black-headed gulls. The tern species
include, Little Tern Sternula albifrons, Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon
nilotca, Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia, Whiskered Tern Chlidonias
hybrida, Common Tern Sterna hirundo, Greater Crested Tern Thalasseus
bergii, Lesser Crested Tern Thalasseus bengalensis, Sandwich Tern Thalasseus
sandvicensis, White-winged Tern Chilidonias leucopterus, Bridled
Tern Onychoprion anaethetus, and Sooty Tern Onychocommonprion
fuscatus. Lesser Crested Tern and Greater Crested Tern, the breeding
residents of this area, were the most prevalent tern species during the study period, followed by Little Tern and
Common Tern. Among other large waterbirds, Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus
roseus was seen mostly restricted to the Kothandaramar Lagoon compared to
other study areas but rarely in the Dhanushkodi region only few in numbers.
Although 50% of the species for which one-time peak count was mentioned are
‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List, global population analysis shows a
decreasing trend (BirdLife International 2024). Notably, the global
population size of 76% of these listed species is unknown (Table 2).
Most land birds are
recorded from the lagoon peripheries or the Rameswaram Reserve Forest areas. Some ground-nesting land birds
such as Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula used the grassy patches in
Dhanushkodi areas as breeding ground emphasizing the need for avifaunal
diversity assessments in lagoon regions, besides waterbirds. The new breeding
records of Hanuman Plover from the study areas in Dhanushkodi emphasize the
need to conserve these unprotected habitats as a significant part of the
CAF (Byju et al. 2023d).
For long-distance
migratory shorebirds, stop-over sites are essential along with breeding and
wintering locations (Boere et al. 2006). Waterbirds, particularly shorebirds,
mudflats, and shallow lagoons provide pivotal habitat (Sandilyan et al. 2010)
which is evident in the study where
shorebirds constituted 35.3% (52 species) of the total avifauna. Therefore, it
is important to perform extensive investigations to identify all crucial
stopover sites, seasons, and ecosystems along the Indian east coast (Rao et al.
2022) that are not hitherto done. The
present study area along with Valinokkam Lagoon (Byju et al. 2023c),
Karangadu Mangrove ecosystem (Byju et
al. 2023b) will fill up the gap in bird studies on the east coast in the
Ramanathapuram region.
Potential Threats and
Conservation Suggestions
The newly proposed
railway line work (Image 9) for Dhanushkodi from Rameswaram and concretization
in the region by building roads that have been extended up to Arichalmunai from
Dhanushkodi will impact the habitat in the future as new soil will be brought
to the area for construction activities impacting the feeding activity of the
shorebirds. Seepage of hard soil from these structures may result in
the hardening of the substrate in the long run. This may lead to the
disappearance of the natural habitat for invertebrates, like molluscs, nereis
worms, and crustaceans like crabs, the food for these migratory birds (Byju et
al. 2023a). Many studies have proven that shorebird diversity, abundance,
and dispersion are influenced by food availability, substrate type, water
quality, and other factors (Skagen & Knopf 1993; Manikannan et al. 2012).
Other threats include
invasive plant species like Neltuma juliflora which is profusely taking
over the mudflats and lagoon edges in Dhanushkodi region (Image 10). According
to Murugan et al. (2020), invasive species modify ecosystems by impacting the
dynamics of soil organic carbon and nutrients. Disturbance may also be a major
issue during the breeding season, as the presence of humans may scare away
adults and allow predators to take eggs and young ones (Martínez-Abraín et al.
2010; Tobajas et al. 2022). It was also observed that domestic dogs are
becoming a source of disturbance to migratory birds (Mundkur &
Langendoen 2019) and breeding birds (Byju et al. 2023d), and disturbance can
have severe consequences for migratory shorebirds that forage and roost in the
coastal mudflats (Das et al. 2022).
Tourism is a major
industry based on coastal wetlands of India (Jayappa & Deepika 2018)
including Rameswaram Island due to the importance of religious belief and beach
drives. Tourists may unintentionally disturb shorebirds by walking too close to
their nesting sites, driving vehicles on beaches, or engaging in activities
such as kite flying or dog walking, all of which can disrupt the birds’ normal
activities and lead to negative consequences (Mundkar et al. 2023). One of the major impacts is the
religious (heritage) tourism in Rameswaram, Kothandaramar temple area, and
the Dhanushkodi region. The amount of waste like used clothes which is a
religious custom to throw the used ones after taking a holy dip on the beaches
and plastics (mostly from packed foods and water bottles) is having a long-term
impact on the habitat utilization of the shorebirds in the area (Images 11
& 12). Microplastics were found in the corals of GoM and tourism was
found to be the source of these (Krishnakumar et al. 2021). Several species
are vulnerable to the effects of plastic pollution
including the consumption of microplastics even
by juveniles (Athira et al. 2024).
The impact of the
tourist vehicles and visitors includes the leftovers of food, plastics, and
used clothes. This has increased the dog population which is again a major
threat to shorebirds and the nesting of Olive Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys
olivacea (Image 13). Restricting the number of vehicles to 200–250 per day
or restricting private vehicles after a certain point in Rameswaram and
introducing public transport facilities through local vehicles involving local
communities in the fragile area could be some of the steps towards a management
solution to the threats. This would also help in boosting the local economy.
The plastic check post started by the forest department with the assistance of
the local community towards the entry to these regions had collected
around one tonne of plastic bottles, five tonnes of plastic covers, and small
throw-away items in one year during our study period. The estimations are that uncollected plastic items
are around four tonnes in the area during the same period. The interactions
with the local administration exposed the lack of garbage collection staff and
improper disposal methods. Hence the resolution of this issue needs the
collaborative efforts of all local stakeholders.
Coastal wetlands are
in a critical state and essential to maintain them for shorebird migration
routes worldwide. Although GoM is a protected area and an IBA, the adjacent
sites often suffer from management issues like the invading exotic species (Gan
et al. 2009). In a nutshell, both the designation of new reserves and the
improved management of existing reserves are essential in this case.
Conclusion
In conclusion,
prioritizing the creation of new protected areas is crucial to preserving
locations of global significance for waterbirds including migratory shorebirds
and breeding studies of unassessed Hanuman Plovers on the selected sites in
Arichalmunai and Dhanushkodi of the Rameswaram Island. Unchecked tourism
remains a major threat to the Dhanushkodi region, which can have adverse impact
on shorebirds, including habitat loss, disturbance, and pollution. These
impacts can lead to reduced reproductive success, decreased survival rates, and
overall population decline. Some steps can be taken to mitigate these impacts,
such as implementing strict regulations on coastal development, establishing
protected areas for shorebirds, educating tourists about the importance of
minimizing their impact on wildlife, and investing in sustainable tourism
practices as suggested. By adopting some of the suggestions, it can be ensured
that shorebirds will continue to thrive in coastal environments, while also
benefiting tourism.
Table 1.
Avifaunal checklist of Dhanushkodi Lagoon of Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu, India
|
|
Order/Family/Common
name |
Scientific name |
Global IUCN Red
List status |
Resident status |
Relative abundance |
|
Anseriformes: Anatidae |
|||||
|
1 |
Knob-billed Duck |
Sarkidiornis
melanotos |
LC |
R/NB |
Ra |
|
2 |
Indian Spot-billed
Duck |
Anas poecilorhyncha |
LC |
R/NB |
Ra |
|
3 |
Northern Pintail |
Anas acuta |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Phoenicopteriformes:
Phoenicopteridae |
|
||||
|
4 |
Greater Flamingo |
Phoenicopterus
roseus |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
Columbiformes: Columbidae |
|
|
|
||
|
5 |
Rock Pigeon |
Columba livia |
LC |
R |
C |
|
6 |
Spotted Dove |
Spilopelia
chinensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
7 |
Eurasian collared
Dove |
Streptopelia
decaocto |
LC |
R |
C |
|
8 |
Laughing Dove |
Spilopelia
senegalensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
9 |
Red Collared Dove |
Streptopella
tranquebarica |
LC |
R |
UC |
|
Caprimulgiformes: Apodidae |
|
|
|
||
|
10 |
Asian Palm Swift |
Cypsiurus
balasiensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Cuculiformes: Cuculidae |
|
|
|
||
|
11 |
Asian Koel |
Eudynamys
scolopaceus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
12 |
Grey-bellied Cuckoo |
Cacomantis passerinus |
LC |
R |
Ra |
|
13 |
Greater Coucal |
Centropus sinensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
14 |
Blue-faced Malkoha |
Phaenicophaeus
viridirostris |
LC |
R |
C |
|
15 |
Pied Crested Cuckoo |
Clamator jacobinus |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
Galliformes: Phasianidae |
|||||
|
16 |
Grey Francolin |
Ortygornis
pondicerianus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
17 |
Indian Peafowl |
Pavo cristatus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Pelecaniformes: Ciconiidae |
|||||
|
18 |
Asian Openbill |
Anastomus oscitans |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
19 |
Painted Stork |
Mycteria
leucocephala |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
Pelecanidae |
|||||
|
20 |
Spot-billed Pelican |
Pelecanus
philippensis |
NT |
R/NB |
C |
|
Ardeidae |
|||||
|
21 |
Black-crowned Night
Heron |
Nycticorax
nycticorax |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
22 |
Eastern Cattle
Egret |
Bubulcus coromandus |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
23 |
Purple Heron |
Ardea purpurea |
LC |
R/NB |
UC |
|
24 |
Grey Heron |
Ardea cinerea |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
25 |
Indian Pond Heron |
Ardeola grayii |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
26 |
Intermediate Egret |
Ardea intermedia |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
27 |
Great Egret |
Ardea alba |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
28 |
Little Egret |
Egretta garzetta |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
29 |
Striated Heron |
Butorides striata |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
30 |
Western Reef Egret |
Egretta gularis |
LC |
LM |
UC |
|
Threskiornithidae |
|||||
|
31 |
Black-headed Ibis |
Threskiornis
melanocephalus |
LC |
R/NB |
UC |
|
32 |
Red-naped Ibis |
Pseudibis papillosa |
LC |
R/NB |
UC |
|
33 |
Eurasian Spoonbill |
Platalea leucorodia |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
34 |
Glossy Ibis |
Plegadis
falcinellus |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
Phalacrocoracidae |
|||||
|
35 |
Great Cormorant |
Phalacrocorax carbo |
LC |
R/NB |
UC |
|
36 |
Indian Cormorant |
Phalacrocorax
fuscicollis |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
37 |
Little Cormorant |
Microcarbo niger |
LC |
R/NB |
C |
|
Anhingidae |
|||||
|
38 |
Oriental Darter |
Anhinga
melanogaster |
LC |
R/NB |
UC |
|
Charadriiformes:
Recurvirostridae |
|||||
|
39 |
Black-winged Stilt |
Himantopus
himantopus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Burhinidae |
|||||
|
40 |
Indian Stone-curlew |
Burhinus indicus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
41 |
Great Stone-curlew |
Esacus
recurvirostris |
NT |
R |
C |
|
42 |
Beach Stone-curlew |
Esacus magnirostris |
NT |
R |
Ra |
|
Charadriidae |
|||||
|
43 |
Black-bellied
Plover |
Pluvialis
squatarola |
VU |
WV |
C |
|
44 |
Pacific Golden
Plover |
Pluvialis fulva |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
45 |
Siberian Sandplover |
Anarhynchus
mongolus |
EN |
WV |
C |
|
46 |
Greater Sandplover |
Anarhynchus
leschenaultii |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
47 |
Kentish Plover |
Anarhyncus
alexandrinus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
48 |
Common Ringed
Plover |
Charadrius
hiaticula |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
49 |
Hanuman Plover |
Charadrius seebohmi |
NA |
R |
C |
|
50 |
Little-ringed
Plover |
Charadrius dubius |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
51 |
Red-wattled Lapwing |
Vanellus
indicus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
52 |
Yellow-wattled
Lapwing |
Vanellus
malabaricus |
LC |
R |
UC |
|
Scolopacidae |
|||||
|
53 |
Black-tailed Godwit |
Limosa limosa |
NT |
WV |
UC |
|
54 |
Bar-tailed Godwit |
Limosa lapponica |
NT |
WV |
UC |
|
55 |
Whimbrel |
Numenius phaeopus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
56 |
Red-necked
Phalarope |
Phalaropus lobatus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
57 |
Eurasian Curlew |
Numenius arquata |
NT |
WV |
C |
|
58 |
Temminck's Stint |
Calidris temminckii |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
59 |
Little Stint |
Calidris minuta |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
60 |
Ruff |
Calidris pugnax |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
61 |
Curlew Sandpiper |
Calidris ferruginea |
VU |
WV |
C |
|
62 |
Dunlin |
Calidris alpina |
NT |
WV |
Ra |
|
63 |
Red-necked Stint |
Calidris ruficollis |
NT |
WV |
Ra |
|
64 |
Common Sandpiper |
Actitis hypoleucos |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
65 |
Ruddy Turnstone |
Arenaria interpres |
NT |
WV |
C |
|
66 |
Green Sandpiper |
Tringa ochropus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
67 |
Marsh Sandpiper |
Tringa stagnatilis |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
68 |
Wood Sandpiper |
Tringa glareola |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
69 |
Common Greenshank |
Tringa nebularia |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
70 |
Common Redshank |
Tringa totanus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
71 |
Terek Sandpiper |
Xenus cinereus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
72 |
Broad-billed
Sandpiper |
Calidris
falcinellus |
VU |
WV |
C |
|
73 |
Sanderling |
Calidris alba |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
74 |
Great Knot |
Calidris
tenuirostris |
EN |
WV |
UC |
|
75 |
Red Knot |
Calidris canutus |
NT |
WV |
UC |
|
76 |
Common Snipe |
Gallinago gallinago |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
77 |
Pin-tailed Snipe |
Gallinago stenura |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Rostratulidae |
|||||
|
78 |
Greater Painted
Snipe |
Rostratula
benghalensis |
LC |
R/NB |
Ra |
|
Laridae |
|||||
|
79 |
Slender-billed Gull |
Chroicocephalus
genei |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
80 |
Black-headed Gull |
Chroicocephalus
ridibundus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
81 |
Brown-headed Gull |
Chroicocephalus
brunnicephalus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
82 |
Pallas’s Gull |
Ichthyaetus
ichthyaetus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
83 |
Lesser Black-backed
Gull |
Larus fuscus |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
84 |
Steppe Gull |
Larus fuscus
barabensis |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
85 |
Common Tern |
Sterna hirundo |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
86 |
Little Tern |
Sternula albifrons |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
87 |
Caspian Tern |
Hydroprogne caspia |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
88 |
Great Crested Tern |
Thalasseus bergii |
LC |
R/B |
C |
|
89 |
Lesser Crested Tern |
Thalasseus
bengalensis |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
90 |
Sandwich Tern |
Thalasseus
sandvicensis |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
91 |
Gull-billed Tern |
Gelochelidon
nilotica |
LC |
WV |
C |
|
92 |
Whiskered Tern |
Chlidonias hybrida |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
93 |
White-winged Tern |
Chilidonias
leucopterus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
94 |
Bridled Tern |
Onychoprion
anaethetus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
95 |
Sooty Tern |
Onychoprion
fuscatus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Stercorariidae |
|||||
|
96 |
Arctic Skua |
Stercorarius
parasiticus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
97 |
Pomarine Skua |
Stercorarius
pomarinus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Procellariiformes:
Procellariidae |
|||||
|
98 |
Flesh-footed
Shearwater |
Ardenna carneipes |
NT |
WV |
Ra |
|
Accipitriformes: Pandionidae |
|||||
|
99 |
Osprey |
Pandion haliaetus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Accipitridae |
|||||
|
100 |
Booted Eagle |
Hieraaetus pennatus |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
101 |
Black Kite |
Milvus migrans |
LC |
R |
C |
|
102 |
Black-winged Kite |
Elanus caeruleus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
103 |
Brahminy Kite |
Haliastur indus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
104 |
Shikra |
Accipiter badius |
LC |
R |
C |
|
105 |
Eurasian Marsh
Harrier |
Circus aeruginosus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
106 |
Monatgu’s Harrier |
Circus pygargus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
107 |
Oriental
Honey-buzzard |
Pernis
ptilorhynchus |
LC |
LM |
UC |
|
108 |
White-bellied Sea
Eagle |
Icthyophaga
leucogaster |
LC |
LM |
C |
|
Strigiformes: Strigidae |
|||||
|
109 |
Spotted Owlet |
Athene brama |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Bucerotiformes: Upupidae |
|||||
|
110 |
Common Hoopoe |
Upupa epops |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Piciformes: Picidae |
|||||
|
111 |
Black-rumped
Flameback |
Dinopium
benghalense |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Coraciiformes: Meropidae |
|||||
|
112 |
Blue-tailed
Bee-eater |
Merops philippinus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
113 |
Green Bee-eater |
Merops orientalis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Coraciidae |
|||||
|
114 |
Indian Roller |
Coracias
benghalensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Alcedinidae |
|||||
|
116 |
Pied Kingfisher |
Ceryle rudis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
117 |
Common Kingfisher |
Alcedo atthis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
118 |
White-throated
Kingfisher |
Halcyon smymensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Falconiformes: Falconidae |
|||||
|
118 |
Peregrine Falcon |
Falco peregrinus |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
119 |
Eurasian Kestrel |
Falco tinnunculus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Psittaciformes: Psittacidae |
|||||
|
120 |
Rose-ringed
Parakeet |
Psittacula krameri |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Passeriformes: Dicruridae |
|||||
|
121 |
Black Drongo |
Dicrurus
macrocercus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Laniidae |
|||||
|
122 |
Brown Shrike |
Lanius cristatus |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
Corvidae |
|||||
|
123 |
House Crow |
Corvus splendens |
LC |
R |
C |
|
124 |
Rufous Treepie |
Dendrocitta
vagabunda |
LC |
R |
UC |
|
125 |
Large-billed Crow |
Corvus
macrorhynchos |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Nectariniidae |
|||||
|
26 |
Purple-rumped
Sunbird |
Leptocoma zeylonica |
LC |
R |
C |
|
127 |
Purple Sunbird |
Cinnyris asiaticus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Estrildidae |
|||||
|
128 |
Indian Silverbill |
Euodice malabarica |
LC |
R |
UC |
|
Passeridae |
|||||
|
129 |
House Sparrow |
Passer domesticus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Motacillidae |
|||||
|
130 |
Paddy Field Pipit |
Anthus rufulus |
LC |
R |
C |
|
31 |
White-browed
Wagtail |
Motacilla
maderaspatensis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
132 |
Western Yellow
Wagtail |
Motacilla flava |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Alaudidae |
|||||
|
133 |
Jerdons Bushlark |
Mirafra affinis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
134 |
Oriental Skylark |
Alauda gulgula |
LC |
R |
C |
|
135 |
Skyes’s Short-toed
Lark |
Calandrella
dukhunensis |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
Cisticolidae |
|||||
|
136 |
Common Tailorbird |
Orthotomus sutorius |
LC |
R |
C |
|
137 |
Plain Prinia |
Prinia inornata |
LC |
R |
C |
|
138 |
Ashy Prinia |
Prinia socialis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Leiotrichidae |
|||||
|
139 |
Yellow-billed
Babbler |
Argya affinis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Acrocephalidae |
|||||
|
140 |
Blyth's Reed
Warbler |
Acrocephalus
dumetorum |
LC |
WV |
UC |
|
141 |
Booted Warbler |
Iduna caligata |
LC |
R/NB |
Ra |
|
Hirundinidae |
|||||
|
142 |
Barn Swallow |
Hirundo rustica |
LC |
WV |
Ra |
|
Pycnonotidae |
|||||
|
143 |
Red-vented Bulbul |
Pycnonotus cafer |
LC |
R |
C |
|
Sturnidae |
|||||
|
144 |
Brahminy Starling |
Sturnus pagodarum |
LC |
R |
UC |
|
145 |
Common Myna |
Acridotheres
tristis |
LC |
R |
C |
|
146 |
Rosy Starling |
Pastor roseus |
LC |
PM |
UC |
|
Muscicapidae |
|||||
|
147 |
Indian Robin |
Copsychus fulicatus |
LC |
R |
C |
IUCN Red list status:
LC—Least Concern | NT—Near Threatened | VU—Vulnerable | EN—Endangered | NA—Not
assessed | Resident status: WV—Winter Visitor | LM—Local Migrant | R—Resident |
R/NB—Resident/Non-Breeding | Relative abundance: C—Common | UC—Uncommon |
Ra—Rare.
Table 2.
One-time peak count of a few important waterbirds with global population
trends.
|
Species |
One-time peak count |
Month and Year of
observation |
Global population
trend (BirdLife International 2024) |
Global population
size (number of mature individuals) (BirdLife International 2024) |
|
Numenius phaeopus |
34 |
February 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Limosa lapponica |
6 |
August 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Limosa limosa |
9 |
August 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Pluvialis
squatarola |
206 |
April 2023 |
Decreasing |
490,000–630,000 |
|
Charadrius
hiaticula |
2 |
October 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Pluvialis fulva |
7 |
April 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Anarhynchus
leschenaultii |
2,998 |
April 2023 |
Decreasing |
100,000–225,000 |
|
Charadrius dubius |
50 |
March 2022 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Anarhynchus
mongolus |
4,006 |
March 2022 |
Decreasing |
18,000–50,000 |
|
Charadrius seebohmi |
25 |
October 2023 |
Not assessed |
Unknown |
|
Anarhyncus
alexandrinus |
1,402 |
March 2022 |
Decreasing |
100,000–499,999 |
|
Esacus magnirostris |
8 |
June 2022 |
Decreasing |
4,000 |
|
Numenius arquata |
47 |
February 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Esacus
recurvirostris |
3 |
January 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Actitis hypoleucos |
21 |
August 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Tringa stagnatilis |
304 |
February 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Tringa ochropus |
151 |
October 2023 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
|
Xenus cinereus |
95 |
August 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Calidris ferruginea |
3,498 |
September 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Tringa glareola |
27 |
February 2023 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Calidris
falcinellus |
40 |
February 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Tringa nebularia |
86 |
August 2022 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Tringa totanus |
352 |
September 2022 |
Unknown |
Unknown |
|
Calidris alpina |
10 |
February 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Calidris ruficollis |
2 |
September 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Calidris temminckii |
50 |
February 2022 |
Unknown |
110,000– 850,000 |
|
Calidris minuta |
710 |
February 2022 |
Increasing |
1,000,000–
1,100,000 |
|
Calidris
tenuirostris |
102 |
March 2022 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Arenaria interpres |
520 |
April 2023 |
Decreasing |
300,000–500,000 |
|
Calidris alba |
80 |
February 2022 |
Unknown |
Unknown |
|
Calidris pugnax |
2 |
March 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Phalaropus lobatus |
2 |
January 2023 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Himantopus
himantopus |
45 |
December 2021 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
|
Sterna hirundo |
202 |
March 2021 |
Unknown |
Unknown |
|
Gelochelidon
nilotica |
80 |
February 2021 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Hydroprogne caspia |
301 |
November 2020 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
|
Thalasseus bergii |
2007 |
March 2021 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Thalasseus
bengalensis |
2996 |
March 2021 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Sternula albifrons |
509 |
March 2021 |
Decreasing |
Unknown |
|
Chlidonias hybrida |
4 |
July 2022 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Ichthyaetus
ichthyaetus |
15 |
March 2021 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
|
Chroicocephalus
brunnicephalus |
814 |
March 2022 |
Stable |
Unknown |
|
Chroicocephalus
ridibundus |
308 |
January 2021 |
Unknown |
Unknown |
|
Chroicocephalus
genei |
260 |
December 2022 |
Unknown |
180,000–230,000 |
|
Larus
barabensis |
55 |
February 2021 |
Data not available |
Data not available |
|
Larus fuscus |
170 |
November 2022 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
|
Phoenicopterus
roseus |
1409 |
February 2021 |
Increasing |
Unknown |
For
figures & images - - click here for full PDF
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