Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 June 2024 | 16(6): 25330–25344
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8915.16.6.25330-25344
#8915 | Received 13
January 2024 | Final received 15 April 2024 | Finally accepted 29 May 2024
Harmonizing ecology and society:
an integrated analysis of vulture conservation in the Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve, India
S. Manigandan
1, H. Byju 2 & P. Kannan 3
1 36, Dhoopakandi,
Sholur-Kokkal, The Nilgiris,
Tamil Nadu 643005, India.
2 Centre of Advanced Study in
Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai,
Tamil Nadu 608502, India.
3 Department of Zoology, Thiru.Vi.Ka. Government Arts College, Thiruvarur,
Tamil Nadu 610003, India.
1 mani.wildlife1993@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 byjuhi@gmail.com, 3 perukannan@gmail.com
Editor: Reuven Yosef, Ben Gurion University of the
Negev, Eilat, Israel. Date
of publication: 26 June 2024 (online & print)
Citation: Manigandan, S., H. Byju & P.
Kannan (2024). Harmonizing ecology and society: an integrated analysis of
vulture conservation in the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve, India. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 16(6): 25330–25344. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8915.16.6.25330-25344
Copyright: © Manigandan et al. 2024. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate
credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Self-funded.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: S. Manigandan has a PhD on Vulture studies from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and is working with Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore. H. Byju is a researcher presently working on shorebirds on the south east coast of India. His earlier work was on vultures in Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and presently collaborating with vulture studies on Moyar. P. Kannan is an associate professor in Zoology with an interest on herpetofauna.
Author contributions: SM—conceptualisation and writing; BH—design, writing and editing; PK—writing
Acknowledgements: We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest
Department for providing support and permission to work in the Mudumalai and Sathyamangalam
Tiger Reserve. Our sincere gratitude to Arulagam and
Bharathidasan for their support during the entire period of fieldwork. Dr. Ramakrishnan, assistant professor at the Government
Arts and Science College, Ooty, is also highly
appreciated for his guidance and support.
Abstract: The Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in southern India is home to several critically
endangered vulture species. This study in Mudumalai
Tiger Reserve and Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve of NBR
presents an integrated analysis of vulture conservation efforts focusing on
harmonizing ecosystem preservation and community engagement. We assessed the
current status of all four vulture species in the NBR
using the road transect method, covering 2,040 km with 24 replications
(January–December 2021). We undertook covert surveys in 82 veterinary
pharmacies across four districts of Tamil Nadu to determine the availability of
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), considering the 100-km vulture
safe zone that included vulture nesting and foraging areas. As practical
conservation efforts require active local community participation, our
assessments include the perception study of local communities in 20 villages
(eight tribal and 12 non-tribal) near vulture habitats. We focused on NSAID
usage, considering the impact of numerous socio-economic factors on vulture
conservation efforts. We surveyed 540 respondents using detailed questionnaires
for these evaluations. The study underlined the need for a comprehensive
vulture management plan that balances ecological concerns with the well-being
and means of subsistence of surrounding communities. This study is helpful for
future conservation efforts in other areas with comparable problems at the
nexus of ecology and society.
Keywords: Community engagement, ecological balance, NSAID
prevalence, road transect method, southern India, vulture habitats, welfare and
livelihoods, wildlife conservation.
Introduction
Nine species of vultures are
recorded from India, of which five belong to the genus Gyps (Prakash
1999). Seven species of vultures are known to exist in southern India. The four
residents are White-rumped Vulture (WRV) Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian Vulture (EV) Neophron
percnopterus, Red-headed Vulture (RHV) Sarcogyps calvus, and Long-billed Vulture
(LBV) Gyps indicus. The three migrants are the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus, the
Himalayan Griffon Vulture Gyps himalayensis,
and the Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus (Bowden
2018). Vulture populations across southern Asia have drastically declined due
to the veterinary use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (Pain et
al. 2008; Ogada et al. 2012) in farm animals (Ogada et al. 2012; McClure et al. 2018; Buechley
et al. 2019). In the 1990s, three species of Gyps vultures experienced
95% catastrophic declines as a result of diclofenac administration to cattle
(Prakash 1999; Prakash et al. 2003, 2012; Oaks et al. 2004). In India, the use
of the drug diclofenac for veterinary purposes was outlawed in 2006 (Prakash et
al. 2007). Other NSAIDs, such as nimesulide,
flunixin, aceclofenac, and ketoprofen, are also
harmful to vultures (Zorrilla et al. 2014; Galligan
et al. 2016; Naidoo et al. 2018).
Diclofenac is still being used illegally for
veterinary purposes in southern Asia (Cuthbert et al. 2011a,b;
Botha et al. 2017). Less than 1% of animal carcasses contaminated with
diclofenac could have caused the disaster observed during the Asian vulture
crisis, according to Green et al. (2004). Thus, creating vulture protection
zones, raising awareness, and teaching the local populace are among the top
conservation priorities. These measures, combined with laws and policies about
the toxicity of NSAIDs, are the most important conservation needs for Old World
vultures (McClure et al. 2018). These drugs remain available in the proposed
vulture safe zone in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
(NBR) area of southern India (Manigandan et al.
2023b). Inadvertent poisoning is another serious risk to vultures that has not
gotten much attention from scientific research. The intentional poisoning of
carcasses as retaliation (Harris 2013) and the construction of electrical
infrastructure that can electrocute birds (Manigandan
et al. 2021) have resulted in a notable loss of vultures.
Given vulture prevalence in
human-influenced environments and their critical endangerment, prioritizing
social science research is imperative. Vultures play a crucial role in
ecosystems by efficiently scavenging carrion and meat waste, thereby aiding in
the cleaning of the environment (Thiollay 2017).
Their presence in humanized settings, particularly in areas with inadequate
solid waste management, can help mitigate the risk of disease outbreaks by
reducing the population of mammalian scavengers such as dogs and rodents known
to transmit diseases to humans (Ogada et al. 2012),
thereby potentially decreasing the transmission of diseases. For instance, the
decline of vulture populations in India led to a surge in feral dog populations
scavenging carcasses in urban areas, contributing to disease transmission
(Guerrero et al. 2012). Hence, the absence of vultures in humanized
environments may exacerbate the proliferation of mammalian scavengers and the
associated health risks.This
study elucidates local community attitudes and actions, pivotal for both
positive and negative impacts on vulture survival (Dhakal
et al. 2022). Human activities significantly affect vulture conservation
efforts, making empirical data on social and ecological aspects vital for
effective interventions (Heberlein 2012; Reimer et
al. 2013; Henriques et al. 2018). Understanding local perceptions, especially
in key breeding areas like NBR in southern India, is crucial for conservation
strategies, considering the intersection of economic development and
anthropogenic stress (Manigandan et al. 2023a). Such
insights inform conservation policies recognizing the role vultures play in
ecosystems (Dhakal et al. 2022).
The objectives of the current
study are:
1. To estimate the present
population of different species of vultures within the study area, with
emphasis on the four species currently threatened to be extinct.
2. To assess the level of perceived threat associated
with the sale and availability of NSAIDs through direct assessments from the
pharmacies of the nearby districts near the vulture nesting and foraging areas
of NBR.
3. To evaluate the socio-economic
status of the public and their awareness and attitudes regarding vulture
conservation within the NBR. This study will contribute to formulating a
site-specific management plan for NBR. This strategy will take
into account the species status, existing threats, and local people’s
knowledge and perspectives, thereby updating the current conservation plan for
vultures.
Methods
Study area
In NBR, both Mudumalai
Tiger Reserve (MTR) and Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
(STR) are located in the southern state of Tamil Nadu and adjoin each other as
the study area (Figure 1). MTR Latitude:
11.587627°, Longitude; 76.710485°), covering 688 sq
km, is bound by Bandipur Tiger Reserve (BTR) of
Karnataka State to the north, Wayanad Forest Division of Kerala State to the
west, Nilgiri South Forest Division to the south, and
STR to the east. STR ,
Latitude: 11.586740°, Longitud: 77.157586° , a 1,410
km2 area bordered to the north by the Biligiri
Rangan Hills Tiger Reserve (BTR), to the west by the
BTR, to the south by the MTR and Sigur plateau, and
to the east by the Bargur Reserve Forest. Tropical
evergreen, tropical moist, tropical dry, and scrub and thorny forests are the
different types of forests found in STR and MTR. The watershed of the Moyar River includes both MTR and STR. WRVs are prevalent
in the extensive area of Moyar Gorge, particularly
within the riverine forests dominated by Terminalia arjuna trees, which
serve as their primary nesting sites. LBVs find good roosting and nesting
habitats along the area’s numerous cliffs and escarpments.
Estimating the population of
vultures
Road-transect methods were used
to assess the vulture population at the study site (Venkitachalam
& Senthilnathan 2016; Manigandan
et al. 2023a). Five transects were chosen based on the nearest accessible
tarred and metal roads to the villages as well as the presence of a vulture
nesting colony in the protected areas of NBR. The transects (T) are: T1: Bhavanisagar to Thengumarahada;
T2: Siriyur to Vazhaithottam;
T3: Vazhaithottam to Masinagudi;
T4: Masinagudi to Moyar;
and T5: Masinagudi to Theppakadu
(Figure 1).
The transects were driven between
0800 h and 1100 h, and 1500 h to 1800 h IST at 20–30 kmph
by a four-wheeler over a total transect length of 85 km. These transect surveys
were conducted twice a month, from January to December 2021. A total of 2,040
km of road were surveyed throughout the study during 24 replications. Whenever
we observe the vultures, the vehicle was stopped, and the geo-coordinates
noted, species identified, and numbers are recorded using a binocular (Nikon
Monarch M5 12x42) from about 100 m to minimize disturbance. These were used for
the preparation of maps using QGIS 3.28 (Manigandan
et al. 2023a). We did not count the birds that were too far away to be
identified.
To assess the accessibility of
NSAIDs toxic to vultures we conducted covert surveys at 82 veterinary
pharmacies across four districts in Tamil Nadu part of the vulture safe Zone: Nilgiris, Erode, Tiruppur, and
Coimbatore, in January and February 2021. The sample comprised pharmacies
managed by licensed pharmacists. We initiated contact with each pharmacy
through local individuals or livestock owners seeking treatment for sick cows
or buffaloes, using expired medication boxes containing diclofenac, ketoprofen,
aceclofenac, flunixin, and nimesulide.
The initial survey recorded pharmacy names, addresses, and sometimes geographic
coordinates. Subsequent surveys located the same pharmacies using this
information (Cuthbert et al. 2011a; Manigandan et al.
2023b). Building on the preliminary survey data, we employed the same approach
to identify medications intended for human and animal use, commonly sold in the
NBR region. Data on the type of compound (defined by active NSAIDs), brands,
whether the drug was injectable or in bolus form, and manufacturing date and price
were recorded. This enabled us to ascertain the presence of vulture-toxic drugs
in the market (Manigandan et al. 2023b).
Local community perception survey
The questionnaire survey encompassed both
tribal and non-tribal populations residing near vulture habitats within MTR and
STR, where tribal communities are allowed to collect non-timber forest produce
(NTFP) and graze cattle. Conducted from November to December 2021 across 20
settlements, eight of which were tribal (Irulas,
Betta Kurumbas, Then Kurumbas,
and Baniyas), and the rest non-tribal (Phuyal et al.
2016; Dhakal et al. 2022). Figure 1 outlines
information on the 12 villages in MTR and eight villages in STR. Perceptions on
vulture conservation were gathered from 540 randomly selected respondents,
comprising 279 tribal and 261 non-tribal individuals. The random selection
process involved drawing household numbers from various study villages as
primary targets (Milano et al. 2018). While household heads were the primary
respondents, resident adults aged 18 or older within households were also
invited to participate (Gandiwa et al. 2013).
Interviews were conducted with the aid of a Kannada translator to facilitate
open communication as most spoke this language than the local Tamil language,
with each interview lasting 20–30 minutes at the respondent’s residence. Most
questions utilized a ‘precise and closed’ format (Manigandan
et al. 2023b) to effectively capture villagers’ perceptions, although this
format was not the primary focus (Gandiwa et al.
2013). The questionnaire, largely based on Reson
(2012), covered socio-economic factors and local people’s knowledge and
perceptions regarding vultures and their ecological significance, ensuring
clarity and alignment with study objectives. Uniform presentation of questions
prevented bias and ensured consistent responses (Kasunic
2005). Additionally, the questionnaire was pre-tested in a nearby community,
and adjustments were made for clarity as needed. Post-survey cross-checking and
editing were conducted to minimize data discrepancies and inconsistencies.
Statistical analysis
Basic statistics such as the
arithmetic mean and standard error were calculated
using (Microsoft Excel and SPSS 23. We also conducted a seasonal evaluation of
vulture populations, distinguishing between summer (April–July), monsoon
(August–November), and post-monsoon (December–March) periods by the
Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA test (Venkitachalam & Senthilnathan 2006). We also examined the relationship
between variables on differences between sex, education, gender, age, caste,
and economic status regarding awareness of vultures, and their conservation,
comparing the groups using the non-parametric test, the chi-square test. To
explore the relationship between variables, we used the Pearson correlation
coefficient, positive correlation (+1) negative correlation (-1) using the
statistical software Origin Lab 2024.
Results
Vulture population estimation
In our survey, we identified four
vulture species: WRV, LBV, RHV, and EV. The WRV had the highest recorded
numbers, with 1,570 individuals (M±SE, 65.4±2.4), and an encounter rate of 0.85
individual/km. Following this, LBVs were recorded at 151 individuals (M±SE
6.1±2), with an encounter rate of 0.08 individual/km, while RHVs numbered 118
(M±SE 4.9±0.25), with an encounter rate of 0.06 individual/km. The EV had the
lowest count throughout the survey, with only 18 individuals (Figure 2). The
mean population of WRV was highest during summer, followed by post-monsoon, and
then monsoon. However, there was no significant difference between the samples
(a). Conversely, the population of LBV did not vary significantly across
seasons (B). Similarly, the mean population of RHV showed no seasonal variance
(c), nor did that of EVs (d) (Figure 4 a–d).
NSAID surveys
In a comprehensive covert survey
conducted across four districts, a total of 19 different bolus brands and 14
injectable brands of NSAIDs were identified as available for purchase to treat
livestock. The survey revealed a diverse array of 11 distinct types of NSAIDs
offered for sale: aceclofenac, analgin
(also known as metamizole), diclofenac, flunixin, meglumine, ibuprofen,
ketoprofen, mefenamic acid, meloxicam, nimesulide,
paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen), phenylbutazone, and piroxicam.
Interestingly, many of the NSAIDs available for purchase were found to contain
more than one active ingredient. Paracetamol was included as a secondary
ingredient in 57.5% of bolus formulations and 42.5% of injectable formulations.
Notably, paracetamol was commonly combined with bolus forms of nimesulide, as well as both injectable and bolus forms of
meloxicam and bolus forms of diclofenac. Additionally, we identified two brands
of diclofenac, either alone or in combination with paracetamol. It is worth
noting that the two injectable brands of diclofenac, originally manufactured
for human use, were being sold for veterinary treatment (Table 1).
Among the four districts,
meloxicam (n = 19) had the most prevalence in pharmacy shops, followed by
ketoprofen and aceclofenac (n = 2 each); flunixin,
and nimesulide (n = 1 each) in Nilgiris.
Meloxicam (n = 17) had the highest availability in pharmacies in the Erode
district, followed by nimesulide and ketoprofen (n =
3 each), flunixin (n = 2), and aceclofenac (n = 1).
Meloxicam (n = 4) was the most widely available in pharmacy shops in the Tiruppur district, followed by aceclofenac
(n = 2), ketoprofen, flunixin, nimesulide, and
ketoprofen (n = 1 each). Finally, in the Coimbatore district, meloxicam was the
most widely available in pharmacy shops (n = 18), followed by aceclofenac (n = 3), flunixin and nimesulide
(n = 2 each), and ketoprofen (n = 1) (Figure 3).
Perception surveys
In the present study, a detailed
analysis of the surveyed respondents’ socio-economic characteristics revealed
the following key findings: The gender distribution was as follows: male
respondents (53.1%, n = 287) outnumbered female respondents (46.8%, n = 253).
The respondents’ ages ranged from 18 to 80 years, with a median of 40 years. Notably,
the majority of participants (34.6%) were of middle age (26–50 years; n = 187),
closely followed by the young age group at 34.4% (18–25 years; n = 184). The
older age group (51–80 years; n = 169) constituted 31% of the sampled
population. The assessment of respondents’ educational qualifications revealed
a predominance of illiteracy, with 35.1% (n = 190) falling into this category.
Following this, 22.4% (n = 121) had completed primary school, and an equal
percentage (22.1%, n = 119) had completed secondary school. Additionally, 20.4%
(n = 110) of participants possessed a college-level qualification.
In terms of source of income,
agriculture was found to be the most common, accounting for 38.7% (n = 209) of
the total sample, followed by livestock rearing at 30% (n = 162). Private
employment accounted for 16.2% of the total (n = 88), while government
employment accounted for 9.4% (n = 51). Entrepreneurial activities were less
common, with 5.7% (n = 30) of the population involved in some form of business
ownership. In addition, the study looked into the economic strata of households
in the surveyed area. According to the findings, 32.7% (n = 177) of households
were classified as lower-middle class, with 27.9% (n = 151) classified as very
poor. The poor category comprised 21.4% (n = 116) of households, while the
upper-middle class accounted for 11.4% (n = 62). The remaining 6.6% (n = 34) of
households were categorized as affluent (Table 2).
The collective disposition
towards vulture conservation was evaluated based on a summation of responses to
15 pertinent questions. Approximately, 66.6% (n = 360) of respondents believed
that the vulture populations in the study area were declining. Moreover, a
substantial 88.5% (n = 462) disagreed with reported incidents of mass vulture
mortality in recent years. A significant majority of 87.4% (n = 472) felt that
the availability of carrion, a primary vulture food source, was not increasing.
Remarkably, 92.5% (n = 499) stated that they refrained from persecuting
vultures. Another 85.7% (n = 463) expressed the opinion that wildlife should
have suitable habitats. A strong consensus of 93.1% (n = 503) recognized the
need for increased awareness campaigns focused on vulture conservation. A
notable 90.3% (n = 488) endorsed the necessity of safeguarding vultures for the
well-being of future generations. A substantial 70% (n = 378) of respondents
held vultures in high regard, similar to a deity. A 67.4% (n = 364)
acknowledged the ecological benefits vultures provide to human communities. The
majority (59.7%; n = 322) of respondents contested the idea of declining forest
cover in their localities; 63.4% (n = 342) of respondents did not consider
chemical fertilizers and pesticides as major contributors to vulture decline
(Figure 5). The correlation coefficient between variables shows an asymmetric
distribution with most of the participants having a relatively positive
attitude toward vulture conservation, Among the respondents,
Q-5,6,7,8,9,12,13,14 and 15 are positive attitudes (Figure 8).
A dichotomized scale was used to
assess significant predictors influencing conservation attitudes among the
surveyed population. There was a significant difference in conservation
attitudes between male and female respondents. Females had a 52.5% (n = 187)
positive attitude toward vulture conservation compared to males 47.5% (n = 169)
which was statistically significant (χ2 = 13.579, p <0.001). When
we looked at the different age groups, we found that middle-aged participants
were more interested in vulture conservation, with 37.4% having positive
attitudes. Older and younger participants had slightly lower percentages, with
31.7% and 30.9%, respectively. However, these age differences did not show statistical
significance (χ2 = 5.406, p = 0.634). Among the communities, tribal
participants showed a higher positive attitude (57.6%) towards vulture
conservation compared to their non-tribal counterparts. However, statistical
analysis indicated no significant differentiation between the two groups (χ2
= 14.651, p = 0.067).
Education-wise, among the younger
respondents, those with college-level education (28.9%) exhibited significantly
more positive attitudes towards vulture conservation. Respondents with
secondary, primary, or no formal education had lower positive attitudes. This
difference was statistically significant (χ2 = 20.142, p <0.001).
Regarding livelihood, livestock holders showed the highest inclination (33.7%)
towards vulture conservation, which was statistically significant (χ2
= 34.379, p <0.0001). Economically, among the low middle-class respondents,
there was a positive attitude (36.8%) toward vulture conservation compared to
others, but this difference was not statistically significant (χ2=
8.256, p <0.083). For those living in the MTR, there was a significant
positive attitude (64.6%) towards vulture conservation compared to those in STR
(χ2 = 3.73, p <0.053) (Figure 6).
In NBR, 12 village residents have
a positive attitude as most of the tribal household has people working in the
forest department as guards, anti-poaching watchers, and eight village
residents have a negative attitude toward vulture conservation, In MTR, Moyar, Boothanatham, Masinagudi, Mavanallha, Theppakadu, Vazhaithottam, Anaikatty, Siriyur, and Kallampalayam are villages with positive attitudes toward
vulture conservation, while Chemmanatham, Bokkapuram, and Thengumarahada
are negative. Accordingly, in STR, only three villages have a positive attitude
- Kadambur, Thalaimalai,
and Ittarai. The remaining village respondents
expressed a negative attitude towards vulture conservation (Figure 7). The correlation coefficient between variables
shows an asymmetric distribution with most of the villages having a relatively
negative attitude towards vulture conservation, among the respondents, villages
who are living in the MTR (Village -1,2,3, 5,6,8,9, 10,12) have positive
attitudes towards vulture conservation exception village- 4,7 and 11. As well
as those who are living STR’s negative attitude toward vulture conservation
(Figure 9).
Discussion
Status of the Vulture population
We documented four vulture
species, namely WRV, LBV, RHV, and EV. This study confirmed the present status
of four vulture species in NBR and underscored the value of local knowledge
regarding the threats faced by these species. Bhusal
et al. (2019) and Galligan et al. (2019) have previously reported an increase
in the vulture population following the ban on diclofenac in 2006. Even though
in NBR, vultures faced new threats as forest fire and illegal tourism (Manigandan et al. 2024), our findings suggest that the
population appears to be relatively stable (Manigandan
et al. 2023a).
Our road-transect surveys of
vulture sightings were compared to similar studies in the study area. Specifically, the encounter rates of WRV and
LBV were 0.85 and 0.08, which aligns with earlier observations (Venkidachalam et al. 2016; Manigandan
et al. 2023a).
Furthermore, we did seasonal comparisons of
vulture populations. Venkitachalam & Senthilnathan (2016) had previously noted that WRV
populations were higher in the post-monsoon season. In contrast, our study
found that the populations of WRV were higher during the summer season. This
difference may be attributed to the breeding seasons of these species, which
commence in September and end in March, with nestlings gradually growing up by
March. During this period, adult birds leave the nest to forage (Stotrambhashyam et al. 2015), resulting in increased
vulture sightings from April to July. Notably, EVs, which were documented
during the study period, were mostly juveniles, suggesting possible nesting of
this species in NBR, consistent with earlier findings (Byju
& Raveendran 2022).
Assessment of harmful drugs
impacting vultures
Injectable formulations of
diclofenac available in NBR were originally intended for human use, making
their manufacturing and sales legal. However, these products were being offered
for sale for veterinary use (Cuthbert et al. 2011a; Manigandan
et al. 2023b), which is illegal. It is important to note that two bolus brands
and one injectable brand of diclofenac were found to be manufactured after the
ban on its veterinary use in 2006. On the other hand, meloxicam has been
recognized as a safe drug for vultures (Swarup et al. 2007). While meloxicam is readily available in
pharmacies, other potentially harmful drugs such as aceclofenac,
ketoprofen, nimesulide, and flunixin are also widely
available in pharmacy shops (Galligan et al. 2021; Manigandan
et al. 2023b).
The presence of these harmful
drugs on the market poses a potential threat to vultures. In the MTR, where
government veterinary doctors oversee cattle treatment, meloxicam is typically
administered to cattle as a painkiller, ensuring the safety of vultures.
However, in the case of STR, private veterinarians are responsible for treating
livestock, raising concerns that they may use pain relief medications that
could be harmful to vultures.
To safeguard vultures, vulture
safe zones (VSZ) have been defined as areas within a radius of 100 km from the
vulture nesting colony. The zone is divided into 50 km as the core zone and the
next 50 km as the buffer zone (Mukherjee et al. 2014) from the nearest nesting
colonies. Research has shown that 1% of lethal levels of diclofenac can lead to
a significant decline in vulture populations (Green et al. 2004). Given the
importance of protecting vultures and the presence of critically endangered
species in the NBR, the Government of India has expressed interest in declaring
it VSZ (MOEF 2020). However, this declaration must be made after thorough
research and assessment to ensure the safety and preservation of vulture
populations in the NBR.
Local community and knowledge of
vulture conservation
We investigated the awareness and
attitudes of local communities, specifically tribal groups, towards vulture
conservation. Tribal communities often hold unique knowledge and perceptions
about wildlife due to their cultural beliefs and practices. This research
aligns with previous studies that emphasize the significance of local
perceptions in garnering support for conservation efforts (Sharma et al. 2019; Katuwal et al. 2021; Byju et al.
2023). One interesting finding is that tribal people are more knowledgeable and
aware of vultures than non-tribal people, which is likely due to their cultural
reverence for vultures as god (Jha et al. 2023). Additionally, personal
attitudes play a pivotal role in determining an individual's intentions to
support vulture conservation (Byju & Raveendran
2022). Furthermore, our research reveals that various factors, such as
ethnicity, age, education, gender, livestock ownership, participation in
conservation activities, and perceived benefits, significantly influence
conservation attitudes. Interestingly, unlike some indigenous communities in
India that engage in hunting for sustenance, the tribal communities in our
study area do not hunt birds, including vultures (Jha et al. 2023). This distinction
underscores the need for region-specific conservation strategies. Moreover, our
study highlights the discrepancy in vulture awareness between the residents of
MTR and STR. This difference can be attributed to the focused efforts of the
forest department and NGOs on the MTR. As a result, future conservation endeavours should extend their attention to the STR to
enhance vulture conservation efforts.
Improved access to primary and secondary education has contributed to an
increase in community awareness. In terms of literacy, it was observed that
illiterate individuals, especially among tribals,
expressed relatively higher awareness of vulture protection compared to the
non-tribal illiterate individuals. Furthermore, there were a higher proportion
of male respondents, reflecting gender roles in Tamil society (Shumsher & Timilsina 2013).
Despite reports of women's limited participation in discussions (Jha et al.
2023), the current study found that women had a more positive attitude toward
vulture conservation, emphasizing the importance of vulture conservation
education and awareness programs aimed at non-tribal communities and others.
None of the disadvantaged groups, such as tribal communities, have a
college-level education, emphasizing the importance of environmental education
programs to engage them in conservation efforts. Previous research has shown
that education can strongly influence conservation attitudes (Heinen 1998; Emtage 2004). The socioeconomic status of the local
population, as measured by education, was a primary factor influencing
attitudes toward vulture conservation. The data obtained in this study revealed
a highly positive attitude among those who received higher secondary and
college-level education (Shumsher & Timilsina 2013).
Subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing
are the mainstay occupations in the study area, with a majority of households
raising livestock. Contrary to the findings of Shumsher
& Timilsina (2013) regarding lower caste and
livestock producers, livestock owners showed a high level of interest in
vulture conservation. Despite the ban on
diclofenac in the country since 2006, informal discussions with veterinary
personnel revealed that local people still prefer to use diclofenac due to its
cost-effectiveness and efficacy compared to other NSAIDs, posing a serious
threat to vultures (Cuthbert et al. 2016). This highlights the need for ongoing
efforts to discourage the illegal use of diclofenac for both veterinary and
human purposes.
The disposal of carcasses in the
region exhibited distinct practices based on the cause of animal death.
Residents typically bury the carcasses of animals that died of diseases.
Conversely, they prefer to discard carcasses in open fields in the case of
natural death and wildlife attacks, facilitating vulture scavenging
opportunities. The use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, although not
quantified, was a common practice among local farmers. Ghimire et al. (2013)
noted that respondents disagreed with the statement that the “use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides causes vulture decline”. Similarly, in the present
study, a substantial number of respondents disagreed with the statement that
the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides contributes to vulture decline.
Regarding attitudes towards
vulture conservation, the local population has a moderate level of
concern. People acknowledged the
significant benefits vultures brought to human societies through their
ecosystem services, particularly in maintaining a clean and healthy environment
by consuming carcasses (Byju & Raveendran 2022).
However, for cultural reasons, the local populace did not hold vultures in high
regard. Interestingly, the study discovered a higher level of awareness of the
harm diclofenac causes to vultures than had previously been noted (Dhakal et al. 2020). Nevertheless, knowledge about other
harmful NSAIDs remained limited among the respondents. These findings can
contribute to the ongoing discussion on vulture conservation in the region.
Informal discussion with the respondents revealed a negative sentiment
regarding vultures nesting in trees within their farmlands. People perceived
vultures as pests due to the odour and the adverse
effects of vulture droppings on their livestock and farms. To mitigate this,
individuals would prune the branches hosting vulture nests near human
settlements. This underscores the importance of ongoing awareness campaigns
among local communities residing in proximity to vulture habitats (Phuyal et al. 2016; Milano et al. 2018).
Conclusion
To conclude, this study from NBR,
the southernmost viable vulture breeding site, offers a comprehensive
assessment of the status of vulture populations and highlights the critical
role of local knowledge in understanding the threats these species face.
Despite three of the vulture species being critically endangered, their numbers
appear to be relatively stable. The presence of potentially harmful drugs in
veterinary use raises concerns for vulture conservation, highlighting the
importance of cautious consideration before designating vulture-safe zones.
Furthermore, the study underscores the need for inclusive assessments that take into account factors such as education, gender, and
socioeconomic status, particularly within tribal communities, as these elements
play a significant role in influencing conservation attitudes. Recognizing the
importance of awareness campaigns becomes crucial to addressing negative
perceptions and mitigating human-vulture conflicts in local communities.
Inclusivity and a multidimensional approach are essential for effective vulture
conservation strategies.
Table 1.
Analysis of injectable and bolus NSAID formulations in four districts, with a
focus on paracetamol-related co-active ingredients (brand names are indicated
in parenthesis).
|
Active ingredient |
Bolus |
Injectable |
Total |
|
Tolfenamic acid |
|
1(1) |
1(1) |
|
Meloxicam |
4(2) |
6(2) |
10(4) |
|
Diclofenac |
3(1) |
2(1) |
5(2) |
|
Ketoprofen |
|
1 |
1 |
|
Aceclofenac |
1(1) |
|
1(1) |
|
Flunixin |
|
1 |
1 |
|
Ibuprofen |
3(2) |
|
3(2) |
|
Nimesulide |
6(1) |
1 |
7(1) |
|
Paracetamol |
|
1 |
1 |
|
Analgin |
2(1) |
1(1) |
3(2) |
|
Phenylbutazone butazone2 |
|
1(1) |
1(1) |
|
Total with paracetamol as a
secondary compound |
19(8) |
14(6) |
33(14) |
Table
2. A comprehensive overview of the
socioeconomic distribution of households in Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve.
|
Respondents' variables |
Tribal |
Non-tribal |
Total |
|
respondents (%) |
respondents (%) |
|
|
|
Gender |
|||
|
Male |
145 (51.9) |
142 (54.4) |
287 (53.1) |
|
Female |
134 (48.1) |
119(45.6) |
253 (46.8) |
|
Age |
|||
|
(Young) 18–25 years |
82 (29.3) |
102 (39) |
184 (34.4) |
|
(Middle) 26–50 years |
103(36.9) |
84 (32.1) |
187 (34.6) |
|
(Old) Above 51 years |
94 (33.8) |
75 (28.9) |
169 (31) |
|
Education |
|||
|
Illiterate |
135 (48.3) |
55 (21) |
190 (35.1) |
|
Primary School |
55 (19.7) |
66 (25.2) |
121 (22.4) |
|
Secondary School |
47 (16.8) |
72 (27.5) |
119 (22.1) |
|
College Level |
42 (15.2) |
68 (26.3) |
110 (20.4) |
|
Source of livelihood |
|||
|
Agriculture |
97 (34.7) |
112 (42.9) |
209 (38.7) |
|
Livestock rearing |
107 (38.3) |
55 (21) |
162 (30) |
|
Government sector |
13 (4.6) |
38 (14.5) |
51(9.4) |
|
Private sector |
55 (19.7) |
33 (12.6) |
88 (16.2) |
|
Own Business |
7 (2.7) |
23 (8) |
30 (5.7) |
|
Economic Status (Annual income)* |
|||
|
Very poor (Below 25K) |
139 (49.8) |
12 (4.5) |
151 (27.9) |
|
Poor (26K to 50K) |
88 (31.5) |
28 (10.7) |
116 (21.4) |
|
Lower middle class (50K to
100K) |
34 (12.1) |
143 (54.7) |
177 (32.7) |
|
Upper middle class (100K to
500K) |
18 (6.6) |
44 (16.8) |
62 (11.4) |
|
Rich (Above 500K) |
0 |
34 (13.7) |
34 (6.6) |
For
figures - - click here for full PDF
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