Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2023 | 15(11): 24184–24200
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8627.15.11.24184-24200
#8627 | Received 10 July 2023 | Final received 18 September 2023 |
Finally accepted 10 November 2023
A review of the status of
vultures in the southern state of Karnataka, India
Gopal Praphul
1 & Honnavalli N. Kumara
2
1,2 Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology
and Natural History, South India Centre of Wildlife Institute of India,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641108, India.
1 praphulgopal.btr@gmail.com, 2
honnavallik@gmail.com (corresponding author)
Editor: H. Byju,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 November
2023 (online & print)
Citation: Praphul, G. & H.N. Kumara
(2023).
A review of the status of vultures in the southern state of Karnataka, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(11): 24184–24200. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8627.15.11.24184-24200
Copyright: © Praphul & Kumara
2023. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change, Government of India.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: G. Praphul is
Junior Research Biologist in SACON. His interest lies in ornithology, behavioural ecology, illegal wildlife trade, wildlife crimes, wildlife forensics and use of technology aiding to wildlife conservation. Dr. Honnavalli N. Kumara is a
wildlife biologist working as a Principal Scientist at SACON. His interest lies in understanding population dynamics, behavioural ecology, and conservation of primates, other mammals and birds.
Author contributions: Both the authors have contributed equally for the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: We gratefully acknowledge the
Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change, Government of India, for
their generous funding support. Our sincere thanks to the Director of SACON for
unwavering encouragement. Special recognition is extended to Mr. Guruprasad Thumbasoge for his invaluable assistance in translating the
abstract into Kannada.
Abstract: Vultures are vital scavengers
that maintain ecological balance by feeding on carcasses. Among the nine vulture species in India, four are categorised
as ‘Critically Endangered’, one as ‘Endangered’, three as ‘Near Threatened’,
and one as ‘Least Concern’ as per the IUCN Red List. The vultures have
experienced a global decline, while in India, majorly due to the use of
diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). A review of all
available literature on vultures from 1838 to December 2022 and extracting of
all sight records from eBird to understand their
status, occurrence, and distribution for the Indian state of Karnataka. The
study reveals a total of seven vulture species recorded from the state, of
them, one was misidentified, two are vagrants, and the other four species,
namely Egyptian Vulture, White-rumped Vulture, Indian
Vulture, and Red-headed Vulture, are residents. The resident vulture population
in the state is experiencing a consistent decrease and has been confined in
recent years to in and around Bandipur and Nagarahole tiger reserves, while Egyptian Vulture is mostly
observed in human-inhabited areas. In contrast to the gradual recovery of the Gyps
vulture population across the country, the population in the Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary remains relatively low or
decreasing. Periodic systematic population assessments and monitoring of nest sites,
evaluating breeding patterns, and ensuring the availability of undisturbed
carcasses for vultures to feed on are suggested.
Keywords: Conservation status, conservation
strategy, endangered species, Gyps, population status, Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary, scavengers.
INTRODUCTION
Scavenger
bird populations are quickly dropping all over the world, with some populations
already on the verge of extinction (Straub et al. 2015; Munstermann
2022). Among all raptors, vultures are the ones that scavenge, and their
ecological importance cannot be overstated. Among vultures, old-world vultures
are the most endangered (McClure et al. 2018). Any harm to them disrupts the
natural balance, increasing the risk of pollution and illness in wildlife,
humans, and livestock (Jha & Jha 2021). Thus, vultures provide vital
ecological services and contribute significantly to ecosystem balance (Jha
& Jha 2021). Vultures are spiritually, economically, and ecologically
significant. They have traditionally been crucial in maintaining environmental
health by clearing animal and human carcasses (Markandya
2008). Vultures are thought to be the most threatened functional guild on the
planet (Sekercioğlu et al. 2004). Sixteen out of the
world’s 23 vulture species are classified as endangered, facing imminent risk
of extinction in the wild (Şekercioğlu et al. 2004; Buechley & Şekercioğlu 2016)
and nine of them are recorded in India (Ali & Ripley 1987), including
White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis,
Indian Vulture Gyps indicus, Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris, Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps
calvus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, Bearded Vulture Gypaetus
barbatus, Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis,
Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus, and Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus. The first four of the nine species have been
classified as ‘Critically Endangered’, the fifth as ‘Endangered’, the next
three as ‘Near Threatened’, and the last as ‘Least Concern’ in the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species (Bowden 2018).
Gyps
vultures were formerly common and widespread over most of India, and their
numbers were very high (Wilbur & Jackson 1983; Prakash et al. 2003). They
are important scavengers, reaching particularly high abundance in
human-dominated landscapes, where carrion from domestic ungulate corpses was
their principal source of food (Pain et al. 2003). Further research has shown
that the likelihood of transmission of zoonotic disease among people, cattle,
and other animals grows with the duration of exposure and the variety of
mammals present in the carcass (Heever et al. 2021). The vulture numbers began
to fall in the early 1990s to 2007s in the Indian subcontinent (Cunningham et
al. 2003; Prakash et al. 2003, 2007, 2012). It has been postulated that vulture
population declines may result in an increase in the facultative scavenger
community and ecological cascades due to increased predation, competitiveness,
and incursion (Buechley & Şekercioğlu
2016). It has been studied that replacing the natural process of carcass
removal (usually performed by vultures) may increase greenhouse gas emissions,
resulting in additional environmental and economic costs (Morales-Reyes et al.
2015).
In India,
the fall of Gyps vultures, especially the White-rumped
Vulture, Long-billed Vulture, and Slender-billed Vulture (Oaks et al. 2004),
along with other vultures including the Egyptian Vulture and the Red-headed
Vulture (Shultz et al. 2004; Cuthbert et al. 2006), was linked mostly to the
intake of tissue from the remains of cattle that had been given the
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication (NSAID) diclofenac (Green et al.
2004, 2007; Oaks et al. 2004; Galligan et al. 2014; Cuthbert et al. 2015). This
drug induces visceral gout, renal failure, and mortality in Gyps
vultures (Swan et al. 2006). Secondary poisoning also induced high
mortalities in them, compounded by vultures’ inherently very low reproductive
rate (Sarrazin et al. 1994).
The drop in population was observed by comparing results from
road transect surveys of raptors in northern and central India in 1991–93 and
2000 (Prakash et al. 2003). Results indicated yearly drop rates of 33% for
White-rumped Vultures and 27% for Long-billed Vultures (Green et
al. 2004). Repeat surveys in 2000, 2003, and 2007 indicated that the decrease
persisted, at unusual rates of 44% and 16% for White-rumped
and Long-billed Vultures, respectively (Green et al. 2004). The estimated
population drop for 1992–2007 was 96.8% for Long-billed Vultures and 99.9% for
White-rumped Vultures (Prakash et al. 2007). It was
also seen that there was a 35% decrease in the Egyptian Vulture population
every year from 1999 and a 41% decrease concerning Red-headed Vultures, but
there was no direct evidence linking this decline to diclofenac poisoning, but
their range and rate of decline were similar to the Gyps species (Cuthbert et
al. 2006). While in the Moyar valley there were
abundant cattle species, the major diet of vultures was wild animal carcasses
(90%) rather than cattle carcasses (Ramakrishnan et al. 2010, 2018); thus, they
persist in the Nilgiri Biosphere.
While in
southern India, efforts were made by Manigandan (2023)
to assess the accuracy of vulture population estimation using three different
methods: road transect surveys, counts from nesting sites, and camera trap
carcass monitoring. The study identified fluctuations in the population of Gyps
bengalensis during road transect surveys. Nest
surveys revealed the existence of tree-nesting colonies of G. bengalensis and rock-cliff-nesting colonies of Gyps
indicus. The estimated population range of G. bengalensis
in these nesting colonies varied from 49 to 104 individuals, with maximum flock
sizes observed ranging from 47 to 82 birds. While the population of Gyps
indicus in the three breeding colonies remained relatively stable. For
the account of the local migratory species, S. calvus was largely
detected during road transect surveys, and N. percnopterus
was mostly reported during carcass attendance counts.
The need to
conserve the vulture population was taken up government and many research
groups worldwide, including India. The conservation action plan was conceived
to avert the extinction of the three endemic Gyps species, beginning with the
removal (through effective prohibition) of the veterinary diclofenac, the
finding of safe alternatives, and the initiation of an ex-situ breeding program
for an ecological reintroduction (Bowden 2018). Following this, the Government
of India prioritised an action plan for Vulture
Conservation considering these major objectives: (1)
removing diclofenac, the primary cause of vulture mortality;
(2) preventing the transfer of diclofenac in its human form to the veterinary
industry; (3) monitoring vulture conservation and recovery; (4) establishing
and expanding a breeding and rehabilitation facility for vultures; (5) limiting
additional mortality; (6) creating awareness among users of the veterinary
diclofenac; and (7) monitoring the action plan’s execution (MoEFCC
2020). These priority measures were achievable with agencies like the Drug
Controller General of India (DCGI), which further banned the veterinary use of
diclofenac in 2006, and later, with technical evidence from the agencies in
2015, the vial size for humans was also reduced to prevent misuse of the drugs.
Further, with recommendations from the Drugs Technical Advisory Board, the
Government of India legally banned two additional veterinary drugs, Ketoprofen
and Aceclofenac, as well as their formulations for
both human and animal use, as these drugs have also been identified as highly
toxic to vultures (Government of India No. S.O. 3448(E) dt.
31-07-2023). The Central Zoo Authority of India, with support from the Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS), contributed to the monitoring, conservation
breeding, and population estimation of vultures in India. They established
eight breeding centres to breed three Gyps species.
These breeding centres now house 731 vultures, of
which 363 are White-rumped Vultures, 262 are Indian
Vultures, and 106 are Slender-billed Vultures (MoEFCC
2020).
Further,
the Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) in Lucknow, BNHS, and The Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), suggested the use of
meloxicam, which proved to have no ill effects on the vulture species (MoEFCC 2020). Although there was evidence of ongoing
poisoning (Cuthbert et al. 2015), later surveys indicated that the decrease in
population was halted and populations are showing the first signs of recovery
due to the implementation of various measures (Chaudhary et al. 2012; Prakash
et al. 2012).
The remnant
wild populations that are not exposed to diclofenac poisoning play an important
role in population recovery (Majgaonkar 2018). Aiding
to this, the creation of Vulture Safe Zones (VSZ) for the Gyps vulture species
has aided in its recovery, and its additional plan to create VSZ in nine
different states, including Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand,
Gujarat, West Bengal, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, would further aid in the
long-term survival of these species in India (MoEFCC
2020).
In southern
India, the population assessment, breeding, and nesting of vultures are from Moyar Valley of Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve in Tamil Nadu (Davidar & Davidar 2002; Ramakrishnan et al. 2010, 2012, 2014, 2018;
Samson et al. 2015, 2016b, 2016c; Venkitachalam &
Senthilnathan 2015, 2016; Chandrasekaran 2018) apart
from few sight records (Gajamohanraj 2020; Kumaraguru 2021). The population assessment and nest count
were done for Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala (Shashikumar 2001; Sashikumar & Vishnudas 2018)
and distribution pattern and population status for a large part of Andhra
Pradesh (Umapathy et al. 2009; Manchiryala
& Hussain 2018). However, the documentation in Karnataka is highly limited
to sight records and reports of breeding locations. Although these southern
states harbor small populations of vultures, it is crucial to comprehensively
assess changes in their population status over time. This includes identifying
potential gaps such as population status, breeding sites, foraging grounds and
conservation issues. To achieve this goal, we reviewed all possible literature on
vultures and here provided a comprehensive understanding of vultures to date
for the state of Karnataka.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Study Area
Karnataka
is geographically located on a tableland where the Western and Eastern Ghat ranges meet to form the Nilgiri
hill complex. The state of Karnataka is broadly bounded by latitudes of 11.5160N
& 18.7500N and longitudes of 74.2000E & 78.6830E.
The geography of Karnataka includes high mountains, plateaus, remnant hills,
and coastal plains. To the west, east, and south, the state is bounded by
mountain ranges. The northern region is mostly plateau with elevation ranging
600–900 m. The elevation highly varies up to 2,000 m with many peaks in the
Western and Eastern Ghats.
Data
Collection and Compilation
To search relevant
literature, we used the keywords vulture, Karnataka, district names of
Karnataka, and each vulture name while looking for literature on the Egyptian
Vulture Neophoran percnopterus
ginginianus, we used the search keywords
‘Egyptian Vulture,’ ‘Neophoran percnopterus
ginginianus,’ Vulture, and Ranahaddu
(Kannada word for the same), as well as Karnataka in Google scholar
(https://scholar.google.com), and National Ornithological Database
(https://www.sacon.in/nod/). We collected eBird data
for each species and their location. We examined annotated databases, such as
newsletters, magazine articles, and grey literature, all in conjunction with a
snowball sampling method that covered all literature that discussed vultures.
The
extracted data were categorised into 1) sight records
and checklist records, 2) diversity and distribution studies, 3) ecological
studies, 4) behavioural observation/record, and 5)
conservation action or awareness. We recorded the ‘Year of Publication and
Study Period’. The ecological components were initially investigated by
gathering information on the general emphasis of the study, the number of
species (checklists recorded individually), the study region or location, and
the geographical scope, i.e., whether the study was limited to one state or
encompassed many states/districts, forest status, and habitat type.
Analysis
We compiled
a checklist of species found in the state of Karnataka based on all possible
literature, and eBird data from 1970 to December 2022
(Supplementary Table S1). The eBird is often
opportunistic, thus, we carefully considered the data and used considering its
limitations. We provided the conservation status as in the IUCN Red List and
Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for each species. Using the location of
each detection, we depicted the spatiotemporal distribution pattern for all the
species. We summarised the details available on
breeding locations of the species and conservation initiatives taken up and
their outcomes in the state.
RESULTS
A total of
seven species of vultures have been recorded from Karnataka, including Egyptian
Vulture, Indian Vulture or Long-billed Vulture, White-rumped
Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, Cinereous Vulture, Griffon Vulture, and Himalayan
Griffon Vulture. Among them, the last three species are vagrant and
occasionally recorded. The conservation status of all seven species in the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act is ‘Schedule-I’ (Table 1).
Species
account in Karnataka
Egyptian
Vulture (Image 1): The vulture used to be seen on the plains of Manjrabad in Sakaleshpur (Taylor
1887), and also eastern plains of Kanara region, nevertheless birds were
sighted at the edges of the forests and coasts of Honnavara
and Kumta (Davidson 1898). During the birding visit
to Mysore province in 1939-40, Ali & Whistler, (1943) reported that the
bird is resident of the deciduous biotope, and intermediate zones close to
human inhabits, the bird is common in coffee estates of the Biligiriranganatha
Hills, Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Satanur,
Mysore, Chitradurga, Bangalore, Doddaballapur,
and Kolar gold fields. Two birds, one in Breeding plumage and another juvenile
were sighted on the outskirts of Mysore, and later three individuals were
recorded from the same location in 2000–01 (Pittie
2000a, 2001a). Though exploited by urbanization, the foothills of Chamundi Hills in Mysore city serve as roosting sites for
the Egyptian vultures. The city dump yard in the foothills serves as a feeding
area for these vultures. These dump yards also had cattle carcasses thrown in,
and the vulture was seen feeding on them in 2012 (Samson et al. 2014). The
scavenger was seen in Kodagu in mid-2000 (Pittie
2000a), four vultures were spotted in 2013 on the outskirts of Bellary and the
adjoining Raichur districts (Martin 2013). Around 123
vultures including 79 adults, 22 sub-adults, and 22 juveniles were reported
from in and around Ramadevarabetta of Ramanagara during the survey in December 2013 and April
2014 and reported that they were dependent on silk processing sites and a dump
yard of slaughterhouse waste (Samson & Ramakrishnan 2016a). Few individuals
were sighted from 2003 to 2016 in the Mangala and Melukamanahalli
area of Bandipur (Rajkumar
2018). Although the eBird data added more locations
in the last two decades, more recordings were from southern districts, i.e.,
Mysuru, Mandya, Ramanagara,
Bengaluru, Kolar, and Chitradurga, nevertheless,
occasional sightings were recorded from the rest of the state (Figure 1).
White-rumped Vulture (Image 2): The initial
record of the species was in the late 18th Century, e.g., Manjrabad fort area in Sakaleshpur
(Taylor 1887) and several birds and their nests from the forests of Kanara
(Davidson 1898). Later in the first half of the 19th Century, the
species was recorded from many locations in the state, e.g., frequent sightings
from Londa of Belagavi in 1938 (Koelz
1942), a good number of birds and nesting in moist forests of Shettihalli in 1939–40 and the evergreen forest of the Gersoppa falls (Ali & Whistler 1943). More records of
the sighting were from the second half of the 19th century e.g.,
sighted frequently in Chikkamagaluru town in the
1990s (Chakravarthy & Tejasvi 1992), a mixed
flock of 300 vultures were observed on a carcass in Bangalore between 1984 and
1988 (Satheesan 1990). The sightings in the last two
decades (2000 - 2022) include six birds in the IISC campus in Bangalore in 2001
(Pittie 2001b), and two birds in September 2000 at Naryanadurga hills of Melkote WS (Thejaswi
2003), frequent sightings from Nagarahole, e.g.,
30–40 birds and later few were recorded with other vultures on elephant carcass
during January 2000 (Pittie 2000b; Sarath 2000), 90 birds on a deer carcass in June 2005
(Ramesh 2005), three birds with other vultures in January 2014 (Robson 2014),
and Bandipur, e.g., frequently sighted from Byladkuppe cliffs, Rampura and Banur,
and also reported them to nest and reproduce in the park (Rajkumar
2018), and Ankola and Karwar, e.g., 12 birds at Hattikeri Timber Depot in 2007 (Praveen 2007). Anoop et al.
(2020) reported that these vultures occupy and nest on trees with good girth,
especially on Arjuna trees in the riparian habitat, and predicted suitable
habitat for the reintroduction in several protected areas of southern Western
Ghats. The eBird data also indicate occasional
sightings from the entire state but most of the sightings are confined to a few
southern districts, especially to the forests of Bandipur
and Nagarahole (Figure 2).
Indian
Vulture (Image 3): Inhabitant of open areas and forested
landscapes. The bird has been recorded from different parts of Karnataka, i.e.,
Kanara, Londa, and Tumkur (BirdLife International 2001), In December 1935, a few birds
were seen nesting on cliffs opposite Jog Falls (Abdulali
1936; Ali & Whistler 1943). In January 2000, 40–50 birds were feeding on
the carcass of an elephant along with other vultures in Nagarahole
(Sarath 2000; BirdLife
International 2001). In January 2013, 16 vultures were recorded on the
outskirts of Bellary (Martin 2013). Three nests with chicks and successful
nestlings growing to adulthood were reported in 2006 from rocky edges of Ramadevarabetta of Ramanagara
hills (Subramanya & Naveen 2006). However, only seven birds and two nesting
were recorded in 2015–16, and one nest in 2016–17 but no chicks were observed
from the same hills (Ashok 2018). In Bandipur,
breeding was recorded from Moolehole in Rampura along
with white-backed vultures in 1996 (Rajkumar 2018),
and the continued monitoring of these nests reported breeding in 2002–03 and
2008–11 in Moolehole and Banur
in the Gundre range (Rajkumar
2018). Prior to 1999, the species was infrequent throughout the southern
part of the state. The sight record of the bird in the eBird
shows that most of the sightings are reported from southern Karnataka except
few sightings in the rest of the state, of them, most of the sightings are from
Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary, Bandipur, and Nagarahole (Figure
3).
Himalayan
Griffon Vulture (Image 4): The bird is spread over the Himalayan landscape
and is an infrequent visitor to South India. Two individual birds were seen
simultaneously in the Ramanagara Vulture Sanctuary
and the Hesaraghatta Grasslands in February 2013
(Praveen et al. 2014). A juvenile was sighted in the Halga-Ulga
region of Uttara Kannada District in January 2016 (Surve
2016) (Figure 4).
Cinereous
Vulture (Image 5): The Cinereous vulture usually winters in North
India and is a rare visitor to Peninsular India (Ali & Ripley 1987). The
bird was sighted for the first time at Harangi Dam in
Kushalnagara in December 1998 (Subramanya 2001), on the bank of Lakshman Thirta River in Krishnaraja Sagar Reservoir near Mysore in January 2002 (Shivanand 2004), and sighted
between December 2016 and January 2017 at Kabini
backwaters of the Nagarahole while feeding along with
Long-billed Vultures and Red-headed vultures (Samson et al. 2019) (Figure 4).
Red-headed
Vulture (Image 6): Except for a few sight records of the species,
no other information is available on the species from the state. In the late 18th
Century, three vultures were seen feeding on a donkey carcass and later one
specimen was collected in and around Manzrabad fort
in Sakaleshpur (Taylor 1887). The bird was speculated
to be a resident of the Kanara region as it was sighted occasionally in all
seasons and parts of the region (Davidson 1898). Single birds were occasionally
seen in Bandipur and Maarikanive
during 1939–40 (Ali & Whistler 1943). Intermittent sighting of the vulture
was reported from Nagarahole, e.g., 8–10 vultures
were observed feeding on elephant carcasses in January 2000 (Sarath 2000), two vultures were sighted later in 2000 (Pittie 2000b), one vulture was seen feeding on deer
carcasses in January 2005 (Ramesh 2005) and two vultures in late January 2014
(Robson 2014). Rajkumar (2018) reported that the bird
is a resident, usually single or two individuals are sighted frequently in Bandipur, but the population status is not available for
the park. The eBird data also shows except for one or
two recordings from northern and south-eastern Karnataka, many of the sightings
are confined to forested areas of Kodagu, Mysuru, and Chamarajanagar,
especially at Bandipur and Nagarahole
(Figure 5).
Griffon
Vulture (Image 7): Occasional reports of the species are recorded
from the state, e.g., one bird was collected from a flock of 50 in 1938 from Jagalbet, Uttara Kannada District (Koelz
1942), and several pairs were sighted on ledges of rocky patches near the Gersoppa falls during 1939–40 (Ali & Whistler 1943b),
and an individual was sighted with a mixed flock of vultures in Nagarahole in 2000 (Pittie
2000b).
Sight
records of different vulture species in protected areas and non-protected areas
From 1838
to December 2022, among all the seven species of vultures, the sighting
record of the Egyptian vulture (n = 1802) was more than all other species
(White-rumped Vulture: 522; Red-headed Vulture: 521;
Indian Vulture: 465; Himalayan Griffon: 5; and Cinereous Vulture: 3). Of them,
more than 80% of the sight records of Red-headed Vulture, White-rumped Vulture, and Indian Vulture were from protected
areas, while only 14% of sight records of the Egyptian Vulture was from
protected areas (Figure 6).
Record of
nest sites
Although
nests of Egyptian Vultures, Indian Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, and White-rumped Vultures were recorded over a period of one century
in different parts of the state, most of the recordings are largely from Ramanagara, Bandipur, and a few
other locations in southern Karnataka (Supplementary Table S2). But in the last
decade, the recordings of nest sites are only from Ramanagara,
Bandipur, and their surroundings.
Conservation
Initiatives
Considering
the constant sightings and breeding records from Ramanagara
Hills, Forest Department, Karnataka, declared this region for the conservation
of vultures in January 2012 as ‘Ramadevarabetta
Vulture Sanctuary’ (Government of Karnataka No. F.E.E.234.S.W.L. 2009, dated 31
January 2012).
DISCUSSION
In Karnataka, seven vulture
species are recorded, with the Cinereous Vulture and Himalayan Griffon Vulture
being occasional visitors, as documented by Praveen et al. (2014) and Samson et
al. (2019), while the Egyptian Vulture, White-rumped
Vulture, Indian Vulture, and Red-headed Vulture are permanent residents. This
distribution pattern extends to the neighboring southern Indian states of Tamil
Nadu and Kerala, with the additional presence of the Griffon Vulture as an
infrequent visitor, as reported by Gajamohanraj
(2020), Kumaraguru et al. (2021), and Roshnath & Sashikumar (2021).
Most vulture sightings are concentrated in southern Karnataka, with sporadic
observations in the central and northern regions. Notably, the Egyptian Vulture
is the most prevalent species in the state, primarily outside of protected
areas, while the White-rumped Vulture and Red-headed
Vulture, previously sighted across various regions, have been mainly documented
in Bandipur and Nagarahole
over the past two decades. Similarly, the Indian Vulture is known to inhabit Bandipur, Nagarahole, and the Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary.
Before 2000, vulture sightings in
Karnataka were scarce, likely due to a lack of birdwatchers and awareness.
However, since 2000, platforms like eBird and iNaturalist have facilitated increased birdwatching and
record-keeping, resulting in a higher number of bird sightings, including
vultures. Nevertheless, this data hasn’t yet covered every corner of the state
or the country, which is essential for a comprehensive understanding of vulture
occurrence, spatial distribution, and sighting frequency. Despite these
limitations, the findings have been carefully considered (Supplementary Figure
S1).
The occasional vagrant sightings
of Griffon vultures have raised concerns in Karnataka. Historical sightings
reported by Ali & Whistler (1943) were later retracted due to
misidentification, as was the case with Ali & Abdulali
(1945) and their opinions on specimens collected from Koelz
(1942) and the sighting of 50 vultures. Furthermore, the specimen collected by Koelz (1942) could not be located, leading to its omission
from Rasmussen & Anderton’s (2012) ‘Ripley Guide to Birds of South Asia.’ Gajamohanraj (2020) recommended removing this species from
the checklist of Birds of Karnataka as per Praveen et al. (2016). While this
species is also recorded in the Moyar Gorge of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, adjoining Karnataka
(Gajamohanraj 2020), the bird’s presence or visits in
the state cannot be disregarded. Some evidence suggests long-distance vagrancy,
with Himalayan Griffon vultures being sighted in southern India (Kumaraguru et al. 2021; Praveen et al. 2014; Surve 2010), possibly indicating a decline in their regular
Himalayan breeding range’s food supply coupled with the inexperience of
immature birds in foraging and navigation (Ding Li & Kasornkorkbua
2008). Recently, a suspected case of electrocution of a Himalayan Griffon
Vulture was documented in the nearby Mudumalai Tiger
Reserve (Manigandan et al. 2021).
In recent times, India has seen a
decrease in the rate of vulture population decline (Prakash et al. 2019), with
some regions showing a slow recovery, such as a 12% increase in vulture
population in Madhya Pradesh (Jha 2017). Prakash et al. (2019) reported significantly
lower densities of the Indian vulture and White-backed vulture in southern
India compared to the north. Unfortunately, the review highlights the absence
of a comprehensive scientific population assessment in Karnataka, with
available data stemming from sporadic records, eBird
entries from the last two decades, and opportunistic sightings, except for one
population monitored in Ramanagara by Ashok (2018).
Given the significant population of Indian vultures in Ramanagara,
the rocky outcrops in this region were declared the “Ramadevarabetta
Vulture Sanctuary.” However, the decrease in vulture numbers and breeding
failures pose significant concerns, as the primary Indian vulture population in
the state is centred around these hills.
White-backed vultures and
Red-headed vultures, although occasionally sighted in various parts of the
state, are now primarily concentrated in Bandipur, Nagarahole, and their surroundings, likely due to the
availability of uncontaminated carcasses in these areas (Prakash et al. 2012;
Galligan et al. 2014). Conversely, the Egyptian vulture is predominantly found
outside protected areas and is recorded over a more extensive region in South
Karnataka. In South India, their abundance seems better in Karnataka than in
Tamil Nadu (Byju & Raveendran 2022) and Kerala (Sashikumar & Vishnudas 2018).
However, the population trend of this species in South India, including
Karnataka, remains unclear. Although recent records of nest sites for Egyptian
Vultures are lacking, sightings of juveniles in various locations suggest that
they are breeding in nearby areas.
White-rumped
vultures (Gadhvi & Dodia
2006; Thakur & Narang 2012; Khan 2013; Ramakrishnan et al. 2014; Majgaonkar et al. 2018) and Red-headed vultures (Chhangani 2007; Dhakal et al. 2014)
typically construct their nests on tall trees. Several nest sites for White-rumped Vultures have been identified in Bandipur,
Nagarahole, and adjacent areas in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala. For instance, approximately 68 nests were documented in the riparian
habitat of the Nilgiri North Forest Division
(Ramakrishnan et al. 2014). Later, 36 pairs of an active nesting population
were observed in the same area and the adjoining Mudumalai
Tiger Reserve (Venkitachalam & Senthilnathan, 2016). Furthermore, a population range of 49
to 104 individuals was recorded in nesting colonies across the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Manigandan
et al. 2023). Additionally, 12 nests were recorded in the Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary in Kerala (Sashikumar & Vishnudas 2014). In recent years, a single nest of the
Red-headed vulture has been identified in Bandipur.
Indian Vultures in Karnataka are
known to nest on rocky cliffs, particularly in Ramanagara.
However, previous studies also indicated that they occasionally build their
nests on trees, for example, in Moyar Gorge in Tamil
Nadu and various locations in Andhra Pradesh. This adaptability is likely
driven by the availability of a good food resource (Prakash et al. 2012). In Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, three Indian vulture breeding
colonies—Ebbanad, Nilgiri
Eastern Slopes, and Kallampalayam—recorded 92
(2020–21), 142 (2019–2020), and 144 (2019–2020) vultures, respectively, with
remarkable population stability over the three years (Manigandan
et al. 2023).
The review underscores the
ongoing vulture population decline in Karnataka, emphasising
the necessity for systematic population assessment and monitoring in the state.
Identifying vulture nest sites and monitoring their breeding success are
crucial steps for effective management interventions, particularly given the
major surviving vulture populations around Bandipur, Nagarahole Tiger Reserves, and Ramadevarabetta
Vulture Sanctuary. Ensuring the availability of uncontaminated food resources
in their habitat is essential to guarantee their survival.
Table 1. The status of vultures (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae)
that are recorded from Karnataka in the IUCN Red List, all the listed species
occur in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act.
Common name |
Scientific name |
IUCN status |
Egyptian Vulture |
Neophron percnopterus |
Endangered |
White-rumped
Vulture |
Gyps bengalensis |
Critically Endangered |
Indian Vulture |
Gyps indicus |
Critically Endangered |
Himalayan Griffon Vulture |
Gyps himalayensis |
Near Threatened |
Griffon Vulture |
Gyps fulvus |
Least Concern |
Cinereous Vulture |
Aegypius monachus |
Near Threatened |
Red-headed Vulture |
Sarcogyps calvus |
Critically Endangered |
Supplementary Table S1. Published literature and Ebird Data from 1838 to 2022.
The supplementary table has been deposited in the
repository:
<https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/n3ytyc6rdx/1/files/868459fa-0112-43f7-b0fd-7c1fa49b94d3>
Supplementary Table S2. The nesting location of all
vulture species in Karnataka recorded in the literature.
The supplementary table has been deposited in the
repository:
<https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/n3ytyc6rdx/1/files/78f67410-004b-43d0-ba46-9d70b7574162>
For figures
& images - - click here for full PDF
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