Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2023 | 15(2): 22718–22725
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8271.15.2.22718-22725
#8271 | Received 24 November 2022 | Finally accepted 28 January 2023
Multidimensional time-lapse of a
relict species Canarium strictum
Roxb. from a sacred landscape in Pune District, India
Mukul Mahabaleshwarkar
1, Nivedita Ghayal 2, Supriya Mahabaleshwarkar 3 &
Vinaya Ghate 4
1,1 A. Kulkarni Department of
Biodiversity, MES Abasaheb Garware
College, Pune, Maharashtra 411004, India.
2 Department of Botany, MES Abasaheb Garware College, Karve Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411004, India.
1,3 Indian National Trust for Art and
Cultural Heritage (INTACH), Pune Chapter, Kothrud, Pune, Maharashtra 411038,
India.
4 Former senior scientist, Agharkar Research Institute, C-2, New Friends Society, Paud Road, Kothrud, Pune, Maharashtra 411038, India.
1 mmukul@gmail.com (corresponding
author), 2 gnivedita12@gmail.com, 3 supriya.r.g@gmail.com,
4 vsghate@gmail.com
Abstract: The traditional practice of
conservation on religious basis along with commercial linkages at a local level
is an interesting system from the point of view of its ecological, economical
as well as institutional sustainability. Dhoop-rahat,
in the Western Ghats region of Bhor Taluka in Pune
District, is possibly the only sacred grove dedicated to a religiously
important species Canarium strictum Roxb. Dhoop (black dammar resin) is traditionally extracted from C.
strictum. The present study attempts to assess Dhoop-rahat and its surrounding historic sacred landscape
with focus on the rare C. strictum individuals
in the backdrop of changes in the ecological, geographical, socio-cultural, and
economical dimensions associated with it, over time. Field and market surveys were conducted and
RS-GIS techniques were used in the study. Community conserved Dhoop-rahat sacred grove has two individuals of C. strictum along with seven endemic and one IUCN Red
Listed species. Successful regeneration of C. strictum
is not observed. Once commercially harvested from this location, this species
is now used only for ritualistic purposes. The two individuals of C. strictum have endured the drastic changes in the
surrounding vegetation. In the business-as-usual scenario, there is a high risk
of losing the last two individuals of C. strictum
in the region and eventually the grove itself. Newer approaches of conservation
by combining community-based traditional ecological knowledge with modern day
scientific methods should be applied for protection of this sacred landscape.
Long-term periodic monitoring of sacred groves and their surrounding landscape
is essential for ensuring their sustainable existence.
Keywords: Black dammar resin, community
conservation, dhoop, Dhoop-Rahat,
ecological, economical, natural heritage, sambrani,
sacred grove, Western Ghats.
Editor: Anonymity requested. Date of publication: 26 February 2023 (online
& print)
Citation: Mahabaleshwarkar, M., N. Ghayal, S. Mahabaleshwarkar &
V. Ghate (2023). Multidimensional time-lapse of a relict species Canarium strictum Roxb. from a sacred landscape in Pune District, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(2): 22718–22725. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8271.15.2.22718-22725
Copyright: © Mahabaleshwarkar et al. 2023. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This research is part of self-funded doctoral research of Mukul Mahabaleshwarkar.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Mukul Mahabaleshwarkar (M.Sc., MBA): executive committee member, INTACH Pune Chapter and doctoral fellow at MES Abasaheb Garware College, Pune. Working in the field of environmental research, natural heritage, conservation strategy and policy, farming and sustainability with an interdisciplinary approach. He has authored and contributed to a number of scientific and popular articles in reputed media.
Prof. Dr. Nivedita Ghayal: professor, Department of Botany, MES Abasaheb Garware College Pune. She has academic experience of 32 years and research experience of 20 years. She has published 35 research papers and two book chapters. With her research area as plant physiology, biochemistry, allelopathy and ecology, she is guiding PhD fellows (Environmental Science) of Savitribai Phule Pune University.
Supriya Mahabaleshwarkar: With a master’s degree in biodiversity; she is working with INTACH for the last 17 years and is presently Co-convenor, INTACH Pune Chapter. She is working on documentation and conservation of sacred groves, associated natural and cultural heritage. She designs, curates and conducts heritage and environment awareness programs.
Dr. Vinaya Ghate: retired as scientist E and in-charge, Botany Group of Plant Science Division, Agharkar Research Institute, Pune. Floristics, taxonomy, ethnobotany, especially medicinal plants and biodiversity conservation are the areas of her lifelong research interest and passion. She has successfully completed more than 20 in-house research projects in concerned areas and published over 90 research papers.
Author contributions: MM—Conceptualization, research design, background research, field data collection, GIS mapping and analysis, manuscript design and writing. NG—Review and research insights, manuscript checking. SM—Background research,
interviews, field data collection, writing and analysis. VG—Past field observation and notes, manuscript checking.
Acknowledgements: Authors are thankful to
villagers of Shirgaon and Abhepuri,
Dr. Utkarsh Ghate, Dr. Ankur Patwardhan, Prof. Dr. P.B. Buchade, Forest
Department (MS) Bhor Division for their support.
INTRODUCTION
In many
parts of the world, belief in sacred nature underpins people’s land and
resource use whilst in pursuit of livelihoods; moreover, traditional cultural
and spiritual values provide the context in which environmental stewardship can
be nurtured (Robson & Berkes 2010). Nature
conservation is an ancient tradition in India. One such significant tradition
is of dedicating patches of forests to some deities as sacred groves (Gadgil & Vartak 1981).
Similar to tradition of sacred landscapes and sacred forests, worshipping
individual species of trees has also been an ancient tradition. The cult of
tree worship depicting tree as a representative of gods on earth has its roots
deep in the history of mankind (Sane & Ghate
2006). The traditional practice of conservation on religious basis along with
commercial linkages at a local level is an interesting system from the point of
view of its ecological, economical as well as institutional sustainability (Goturkar-Mahabaleshwarkar & Mahabaleshwarkar
2007).
Dhoop-rahat sacred grove situated in the Western Ghats
region of Bhor Taluka in Pune District gets its name
from the Sanskrit word ‘Dhoop’, which refers to
offering of incense. Dhoop-rahat is possibly the only
sacred grove dedicated to a religiously important species Canarium
strictum Roxb. Canarium strictum is unevenly
distributed in Western Ghats and southeastern Asia. It is an indigenous plant
species of Eastern and Western Ghats of India (Meena et al. 2012) and is
endemic to the western peninsula (Gadgil & Vartak 1976). It occurs as a canopy tree in the moist
deciduous and evergreen forests. Information about its conservation status
nationally or globally is lacking, though at the level of the region, C. strictum has been reported to be a species of
conservation concern (Ravikumar & Ved 2000). In
Maharashtra it shows a serious population bottleneck (Patwardhan & Vasudeva
2010). The geographical distribution of C. strictum
in Maharashtra was wider in the past as compared to the present observations.
The earlier reports show that the species was distributed in Konkan, hills of
Pen, the then Pant Sachiv’s country that included
present talukas of Maval, Mulshi,
Velhe, and Bhor (Dalzell
& Gibson 1861) and Matheran (Cooke 1903). In
Maharashtra, presently, the species has been recorded from Satara,
Kolhapur, Pune and Raigad Districts (Singh & Karthikeyan 2000; Patwardhan
& Vasudeva 2010) with Dhoop-rahat sacred grove
being the northernmost known location of C. strictum
in the northern Western Ghats (Kulkarni et al. 2014).
C. strictum has common names such as Black Dammar, Raal Dhoop, Black Dhoop, and Sambrani Dhoop. It is a representative of Burseraceae
family, which is known as incense trees family. It exudes a resin called Sambrani or Dammar, which has medicinal and spiritual
importance. It is harvested for resin by several indigenous communities in the
Indian subcontinent (Varghese 2014). Dhoop has
medicinal applications in tribal communities as well as in Siddha and Ayurvedic
systems of medicine in treatment of respiratory ailments and rheumatism. Dhoop is also burnt for its insect repellent properties.
The species also has commercial use in varnish (Langenheim
2003) and timber.
The only
two individuals of C. strictum surviving in
the Dhoop-rahat were reported first in early 1970s (Gadgil & Vartak 1976). Their
unique presence is the only reason for survival of this sacred grove. This
species has not shown regeneration in grove as well as in the region. Dhoop-rahat sacred grove, along with three other sacred
groves, is part of sacred landscape formed near the origin of River Nira. Ownership and management of these sacred groves are
in the hands of different agencies including local community and government
departments. An ancient trade route, now a state highway, known as Varandha Ghat,
connecting Bhor and Mahad in Raigad District of
Konkan region, passes through this landscape. Until last decade, it was the
only motorable and closest road connecting these two places. Development
associated with this connectivity since historic times, influenced the
surrounding landscape from time-to-time. Present study attempts to assess this
sacred landscape with focus on the existence battle of Dhoop
trees and eventually Dhoop-rahat in the backdrop of
changes in the ecological, geographical, socio-cultural and economical
dimensions associated with it, over time.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
The study
area was surveyed for the following dimensions during years 2021 and 2022:
1.
Ecological: Field visits were conducted for studying vegetation in the study
area. GPS locations of the sacred groves and C. strictum
trees were recorded using GPS, Garmin e-trex30. Observations on the
regeneration of C. strictum were noted.
Overall health and threatscape of the ecosystem were
documented.
2.
Geographical: Land ownership and landuse patterns in
the sacred landscape and surrounding region were mapped using Google Earth
images at different points of time. Geographical changes over the past 30 years
were noted with the help of satellite images taken by Landsat 4, 5, 7, and 8.
NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) was calculated using QGIS
software. It was used for calculation of vegetation health. Satellite images
from month of March were used so as to avoid cloud cover.
3.
Socio-cultural associations: Semi-structured interviews with the local
community representatives including Gurav
(local priest of the deities in the sacred grove) were conducted for
understanding levels of awareness about C. strictum,
occurrence of species in the nearby forests, traditional knowledge associated
with the species, usage of the species in past and present and usage of
extracted Dhoop in rituals of associated
deities.
4.
Economical: Survey was conducted in the nearby market places for commercial
aspects of Dhoop and history of Dhoop
trade in the region. Also, attempt was made to find out if there was any
commercial reason for survival of these two individuals.
RESULTS
Geographical
/ Landscape Dimensions
The sacred
landscape is located on the immediate eastern slopes of the Western Ghats,
locally known as Rairi Hills. Sacred groves of Dhoop-rahat (18.092N & 73.635E), Janani (also known as Durgadevi) (18.093N & 73.628E) and Waghjai
(18.105N & 73.655E) are situated near Bhor-Mahad
road, which is part of an ancient trade route connecting historic coastal
township of Choul with trade centre
of Vijayapura (Karnataka) on Deccan. Sacred groves of
Durgadevi and Dhoop-rahat
are close to each other and are situated between villages Shirgaon
and Abhepuri. As per revenue records of the lands
these sacred groves are part of village Abhepuri. The
eastern flowing River Nira originates from the first
order streams in this landscape and makes its way ahead from Niramai Kund (sacred tank)
(18.103N & 73.624E). The ownership and management pattern of this sacred
landscape involves multiple stakeholders including a local temple trust, forest
and irrigation departments of the government of Maharashtra, and local
communities. The landscape is a mosaic of dense forest patches, waterbodies,
grazing lands, agricultural fields, and occasional patches of shifting
cultivation.
NDVI
calculated over the past 30 years at the interval of 10 years from 1991 to 2021
indicates that the dense vegetation patches including reserve forests and
sacred groves have remained intact. However, surrounding unprotected vegetation
shows degradation as an effect of activities such as construction of dam and
road widening during years 2001 and 2011. Slight increase in green cover as
seen in NDVI of 2021 can be because of rise of water table due to dam
backwaters. This does not represent any addition to the dense forest vegetation
(Image 1).
Ecological
Dimensions
Plant
diversity observed in Dhoop-rahat and Durgadevi sacred groves comprises of 73 species of plants
including 32 species of trees, 22 species of shrubs, and lianas and 19 species
of herbs, climbers, and ferns. Durgabai sacred grove
located at an aerial distance of 800 m and on foot distance of 1,200 m shows
similar vegetation pattern except absence of C. strictum
and presence of invasive plant species. From the vegetation survey at Dhoop-rahat, it was found that the forest is of moist
deciduous and semi-evergreen type. The canopy species including old growth
trees of C. strictum, Terminalia bellirica, Schleichera oleosa, and Holigarna
grahamii form major canopy of the grove. Giant
climbers such as Gnetum ula,
Dalbergia horrida,
Entada rheedei, and Diploclisia glaucescens
were found in the grove. Epiphytic flora includes orchids such as Eria dalzellii, Aerides maculosum, and
Dendrobium barbatulum. Seven endemic species
including one IUCN Red List Vulnerable (VU) species (Curcuma pseudomontana) were documented from the study area.
Invasive plant species were not observed. The forest is dense and forest floor
shows deep leaf litter layer. Saplings of different plant species were seen.
Seeds of C. strictum were found on the forest
floor. However, its natural regeneration has not been observed so far. Canarium strictum
is a canopy species and the two individuals are about 35 m in height and about
5 m in girth. The lowermost 3 m of the trunk shows uneven and globular
structures called wood-knots.
Communities
in this landscape are dependent on agriculture (mainly rice) for their
livelihood and pastoralism for milk and meat requirements. Slash-and-burn
shifting cultivation is practiced for cultivating millets like Nachani (Ragi) and Varai (Barnyard millet). As a traditional cultivation
practice, the forest patch adjoining the Dhoop-rahat
and a part of it were slashed and burned during the years 1985, 1995 and then
in the year 2005 for cultivation of Ragi millet,
whereas the Dhoop-rahat forest patch having C. strictum trees was kept untouched (Image 2). The patch
used in the year 1995 was not repeated in the year 2005. In fact, the earlier
used patch showed regeneration of forest in the fallow period. Major
developments that impacted the landscape include construction of Nira-Deoghar dam and associated infrastructure during the
years 1994–2000, widening of roads in the area during the years 2010–2015 and
changes in land ownership from local people to the non-native farmhouse owners.
Vegetation
patches of both Dhoop-rahat and Durgadevi
sacred groves have been partly lost due to submergence in the dam backwater. Durgadevi grove has been divided because of road passing
through it. There is forest clearing at different locations for developmental
reasons around this grove. During years 2020 to 2022, maximum number of landslides
were observed in the landscape and surroundings (Image 3). Another road
construction work on the other side of this grove has further fragmented the
grove from surrounding vegetation. Invasive plant species such as Lantana camara, Chromolaena
odorata, and Cosmos sulphureus,
which were not present earlier, have started appearing along the road side at Durgadevi sacred grove. Waghjai
sacred grove in the interiors shows hardly any disturbance due to its
inaccessible location.
Socio-cultural
Dimension
Dhoop-rahat plays a complimentary role to the Durgadevi sacred grove. These groves in this landscape are
not visited often by the local villagers and the forests are left undisturbed
except for ritualistic purposes. In earlier times, feelings of fear and respect
dominated the association of people with grove and deity. Over time and
generations, dilution of such strong feelings has been observed. However, even
in present times, during important lifecycle rituals, the deities in the grove
are worshipped via simple rituals and are invited for placating and/or seeking
blessings. Important decisions related to livelihood practices are taken by the
local communities via a practice of ‘koul’ (Marathi:
special permission of the deity) conducted by the Gurav
in the grove.
The Dhoop is traditionally extracted from the Dhoop trees from this grove for an annual ritual during the
Navaratri festival. The Dhoop-rahat is not dedicated
to a particular anthropomorphic deity. The two C. strictum
individuals in this grove are considered sacred (Image 4). The villagers
believe that it is a formless deity and is referred to as ‘Dhoopdev’
/ ‘Guptdev‘ (invisible deity). Access to the Dhoop-rahat and rights of extraction of Dhoop
are restricted and Gurav plays a role in decision
making regarding the same. The resin is extracted either from natural oozing
from fissures of the tree trunk or by making an incision to the tree
trunk.
Economical
Dimension
Indian
black dammar is preferred among incense sticks manufacturers as it is of very
good quality. The present market price of Dhoop is Rs. 300 to Rs. 600 per kilogram
based on the source and purity. Dhoop from this area
used to be extracted in earlier times for commercial purposes. The local
markets sold the locally harvested Dhoop in the past.
Since the early 1980s extraction of Dhoop from the Dhoop-rahat was stopped for commercial purposes. Restricted
extraction is allowed for ritualistic purposes of Durgadevi
sacred grove.
DISCUSSION
Certain
forest-dwelling communities, often made up of tribal people, offer myriad
insights into ways to make sustainable use of forest plants and animals for
food and other purposes (Myers 1990). Association of sacredness and sustainable
harvesting of Dhoop has resulted in community
protection to the rare C. strictum individuals
and the surrounding vegetation. Earlier records indicate that this species was
probably distributed once throughout Western Ghats, but due to developmental
activities it now survives only in this particular grove in Pune District. The
geographical location of the present study area in the global biodiversity
hotspot of Western Ghats makes it a critically important landscape in terms of
conservation of biodiversity. Proximity to the ancient trade route also makes
it a historically important site. These sacred groves harbour
climax vegetation and are home to important endemic and globally and locally
rare and vulnerable species of plants and animals. This highlights the
significance of groves being vital for conservation and sustenance of
biodiversity (Kulkarni et al 2018). Sacred groves are also important for their
ecological functions and values. Around the origin of each river in the Indian
subcontinent, there is a sacred grove of a small or large dimension (Paranjpye & Paranjpye 1998).
Sacred groves in the region protect the headwaters thus safeguarding the origin
of river Nira. Many sacred groves are located along
the ancient trade routes (active from BCE to 16th CE) through deep
forests (Burman 1997). These groves provided shelter and protection to the
traders. The offerings they made to the reigning deities of the groves were
shared by the villagers (Burman 1997) ensuring safe travel and transport of
goods. Proximity to the trade route (possibly overlapping with the ancient
incense trade route) of the present landscape had enabled sale of Dhoop extracted from the region. As per interviews with the
local knowledgeable individuals and sellers of Dhoop
in local markets, locally extracted Dhoop was
available for sale in nearby market areas, probably till the time when C. strictum trees were abundant in the surrounding
landscape. The vegetation community could have been different during that time.
An unprecedented pace of development on the northern Western Ghats occurred
during the British period due to major interventions like construction of
railways, roads, and dams (Gadgil 2011). During the
1940s to 1960s, many forest patches in this region were chopped down for the
purpose of coal and timber, resulting in changes in vegetation type and size of
the sacred groves. Sacred association of C. strictum
individuals in Dhoop-rahat could be the reason for
their survival, thus making C. strictum a
relict species in northern Western Ghats region. Ecological surveys conducted
in southern India have revealed decreased sizes of C. strictum
populations, which could lead to still smaller populations over the long
term (Meena et al. 2012). Also, seedling fitness decreases as the grove area
reduces due to inbreeding among the fewer individuals and accumulation of
lethal characters in the smaller groves (Tambat et
al. 2005). Occurrence of C. strictum seedlings
is of prime importance because this tree is very rare in Western Ghats of
Maharashtra (Kulkarni & Nipunage 2009). In the
present case study seeds of C. strictum were
observed on forest floor, however successful regeneration was not observed. Fruits
and seeds of C. strictum are edible; so
monkeys, civets, rodents, and birds like hornbills relish the same. Studies on
traditional ecological knowledge of resin harvesters from southern India
indicate that regeneration occurs when fruits are eaten and dispersed by giant
squirrel, flying squirrel, and civets (Varghese 2014). Population loss of
agents of seed dispersal like giant squirrel and flying squirrel due to loss of
large canopies, habitat fragmentation, loss of corridors and feeding by langurs
could be one of the reasons for unsuccessful regeneration of C. strictum in this region. Habitat fragmentation due to
increased forest fires, clear-felling for shifting cultivation, construction of
private resorts has totally degraded the habitat of seed dispersers like giant
squirrels in this region and their populations have drastically reduced (Mehta
2012). The landuse changes in the study area includes
increased area under agriculture, shifting cultivation, and watershed. Thus,
seed predating rodents like field rats are also negatively impacting
regeneration. Further studies in this area can throw light on the ways to
encourage natural regeneration of C. strictum
in northern Western Ghats. Attempts have been made for germination of C. strictum using nursery techniques and its
reintroduction in wild in other areas of northern Western Ghats. Similar
efforts in the study area with the help of local community may help in
conservation of the species (Patwardhan & Vasudeva 2010). For successful
regeneration of certain species, whether natural or artificial, it requires a
number of key parameters to function in synergy so as to form a conducive
environment.
The
shifting cultivation patches during the fallow period showed regeneration of
species like Strobilanthes callosa, Syzygium cumini, Memecylon umbellatum, Leea indica, Carissa carandas, and Terminalia spp.
Presence of sun-loving species in the upper, middle, and lower storey of sacred groves in this region indicate large scale
felling in the past, recent past, and present period, respectively (Ghate 1994). Clear-felling of part of Dhoop-rahat
and surrounding area, in the past, has brought about changes in the vegetation
community from evergreen to moist deciduous. The two individuals of C. strictum have endured the drastic changes in the
surrounding vegetation. In the business-as-usual scenario, there is a high risk
of losing the last two individuals of C. strictum
in the region and eventually the grove itself. The way in which traditional
societies perceive and modify the landscape and biodiversity around them, both
in space and time to ensure ecosystem stability and resilience, is significant
for landuse management (Ramakrishnan 2009). Shifting
cultivation using slash-and-burn is one such traditional practice in the study
area, which alters the ecosystems at landscape level. Earlier, these
alterations were part of a resilient ecosystem. However, on the background of
increased developmental pressures and with increased demand of agricultural
resources from the growing human population such practice may contribute to
threats. Ecological studies indicate forest degradation of overall landscape
with original dense climax vegetation surviving in pockets of sacred groves.
Association and inter-dependence of the two groves of Durgadevi
and Dhoop-rahat by C. strictum
use for ritualistic purposes indicates the role of culture in connecting and
protecting these forest patches. Dhoop harvesting
technique, via incisions, used presently is a sustainable method compared to
scorching in the past. Ownership and management of Durgadevi
sacred grove and Dhoop-rahat involve multiple
stakeholders. Diverse landuse types coupled with
multiple owners / managers make it a complex system, when it comes to decision
making. Biodiversity as well as cultural values of a site and the communities
which hold them are dynamic and evolving over generations (Watve
& Chavan 2020). The community has taken cognizance of the threat to the C.
strictum individuals by putting a stop to
commercial harvesting of Dhoop. This indicates
application of traditional knowledge system along with possible role of
environmental awareness in recent times.
So far,
community managed sacred groves have been conserved through their vigilance and
efforts. However, community aspirations, changing belief systems and
developmental pressures are challenging the very existence of these groves.
Sacred groves, thus need multidimensional and integrated conservation and
management strategies that will be able to appreciate and consider their
complexity through systems approach (Mahabaleshwarkar
& Ghayal 2020).
Recommendations
Detailed
documentation of existing conservation initiatives via traditional practices
and monitoring impact of development can be the first step towards conservation
of this important landscape. GIS and remote sensing tools can prove useful for
documenting and monitoring long term changes in the vegetation health and landuse patterns in the landscape. Further research on
harvesting of Dhoop and regeneration of C. strictum are needed to ensure sustainability of
harvesting practices. For conservation of the rare species C. strictum, efforts towards seedling collection from
wild, germination and nurturing saplings can be carried out with community for
creating village-level nurseries. Reintroduction of these saplings in the
forest and monitoring their growth can help in revival of this species.
Conservation of C. strictum species and
associated cultural aspects are linked to the conservation of the surrounding
landscape elements. Formation of a village-level Biodiversity Monitoring
Committee can support long term monitoring of vegetation health of the forest.
It will also help create and implement local level guidelines for conservation
of these sacred groves. A deeper understanding of this link between the
conservation of the species and associated historical, geographical,
ecological, economic and cultural fabric of the area can open up newer
possibilities of conservation by combining traditional ecological knowledge
with modern day scientific methods.
For images - - click here for full PDF
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