Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2022 | 14(11): 22139–22147
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8085.14.11.22139-22147
#8085 | Received 02
July 2022 | Finally accepted 13 October
2022
Notes on the nesting and foraging
behaviours of the Common Coot Fulica
atra in the wetlands of Viluppuram
District, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Pandian
No. F1901, AIS Housing
Complex, Natesan Nagar West, Virugambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600092, India.
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 November 2022 (online
& print)
Citation: Pandian, M. (2022). Notes on the nesting and foraging
behaviours of the Common Coot Fulica atra in the wetlands of Viluppuram
District, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(11): 22139–22147. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8085.14.11.22139-22147
Copyright: © Pandian 2022. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author
declares no competing interests.
Author details: M.Pandian has completed
MSc, PhD, in Botany and
BLIS from University of Madras and
Bachelor of Education (BEd) from
Annamalai University, Chidambaram
and now serves in Tamil Nadu Police Department.
His area of interest is ecology and
nesting biology of birds and published a few papers on
House Sparrows, Baya Weavers, Munias, Ring-necked Parakeets, and Indian Flying Fox.
Acknowledgements: I thank D. Balaji (Mailam), and K. Sriram (Rettanai)
for assistance in data collection and photography, S. Sachidanandan,
assistant professor (Arignar Anna Government Arts
College), A. Giridharan (Minnal)
for help with data analysis, and B. Babu, assistant
professor, Madras Christian College for identification of algae.
Abstract: The nesting and foraging
behaviours of the Common Coot Fulica atra were studied in the wetlands of Viluppuram District, Tamil Nadu during the breeding
season. A total of 4,054 individuals of
Common Coot including 467 juveniles and 1,327 nests were enumerated. Of the 1,327 nests, 1,191 were built on Ipomoea
carnea vegetation and 136 on open water. The birds used twigs of Ipomoea carnea and various parts of eight other plant species
as nest material. The nests were
elliptical in shape, with flattened upper surfaces containing nest cup and a
ramp-like structure each. 49.96 % of
nests were found within 50 m distance from the edge of wetlands. A total of 16 plant species were identified
as food sources including five algal species, such as Aphanothece
stagnina, Spirogyra irregularis,
Chara flaccida,
C. vulgaris, and C. zeylanica. The Common Coots maintained strict territory
during the breeding season and no other water birds were observed in the
vicinity of their nesting and foraging sites.
Even after completion of the breeding season, sporadic nesting was
observed by a few pairs till June 2022.
Keywords: Chick behaviour, foraging
plants, nest cup, nest materials, open nests, reproduction.
INTRODUCTION
The Eurasian Coot or Common Coot Fulica atra
(Linnaeus, 1758) (Aves: Gruiformes: Rallidae) is a sexually monomorphic, monogamous,
gregarious, aggressive, and territorial bird.
The Common Coot occurs as an extant species (resident) in India, Sri
Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, France,
Germany, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Kingdom (BirdLife
International 2019). The Common Coot has
four subspecies, namely Fulica atra atra of India, southeastern Asia, Philippines, Europe, and northern Africa
to Japan; Fulica atra
lugubris of Java, Bali, northeastern
New Guinea; Fulica atra
novaeguineae of Central New Guinea and, Fulica atra australis of Australia and New Zealand (Gill et al.
2020). The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species has classified the species as ‘Least Concern’ (BirdLife
International 2019).
The reproductive biology of the
Common Coot was studied in North-east Algeria (Samraoui
& Samraoui 2007) and in Heilonjiang
Province of China (Zhang et al. 2018).
Common Coots have been reported breeding in Gujarat (Himmatsinhji
et al. 1991; Patel et al. 1998), Maharashtra (Khacher
1978), Andhra Pradesh (Nadarajan et al. 1993), and
Tamil Nadu (Balachandran 1994; Santharam 1996). No other literature is available on the
nesting and foraging behaviours of the Common Coot in Tamil Nadu. In order, to fill the gap, the present study
was carried out.
In this study, I documented the
number of birds and nests, and the roosting and foraging habits of the Common
Coot in the wetlands of Viluppuram District in Tamil
Nadu. This study aimed to investigate
the number of individuals of the Common Coot inhabiting the wetlands during the
breeding season, the source of their nesting materials and food, and the total
number of nests. Additionally, roosting
and foraging behaviours and interactions with other bird species were
addressed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The present
study was carried out at 30 sites in the wetland areas covering 29 villages in
the Viluppuram District (12.0579oN &
79.5603oE), of Tamil Nadu (Table 1).
Except for the Veedur reservoir other wetlands
are seasonal and found dry during the summer months of June–August. These wetlands get filled in the Northeast monsoon during
October–December every year. The
vegetation at the study sites mainly consisted of herbs like Ipomoea carnea, reeds/grass Typha angustifolia, and Chrysopogon zizanoides,
and trees such as Vachellia niliotica and Prosopis juliflora. Agriculture is the primary occupation in the
district. The major crops of the area
are Paddy Oryza sativa, Jowar Sorghum bicolor,
Pearl Millet Pennisetum glaucum,
Finger Millet Eleusine coracana,
Foxtail Millet Setaria italica,
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum,
and Pulses, such as Black gram Vigna mungo, Green gram Vigna radiata,
and Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan. Temperature ranges 36–20 oC. The average annual rainfall is 1,060 mm (Viluppuram 2021).
Methods
With the help
of two field assistants, the survey was conducted in the wetlands of Veedur Reservoir and wetlands of other areas in the
district between 0545 and 1800 h, during the breeding season from the third
week of December 2021 to the fourth week of March 2022. The number of birds was counted by following
the total count method (Bibby et al. 2000) when the birds were foraging. Bird census was carried out over three
monthly sessions during the second week of every month for three months and the
bird population size was arrived at as the average of each session’s total
count. Chicks at various developmental
stages were counted during March 2022.
Variables such as nesting sites, sources of nest materials, and food
sources, such as algae and angiosperm plants foraged by the birds were
identified. The distance between the
nests and the edges of water bodies was measured using measurement tape after
the breeding season. The distance
between the nests and edges of the water body was grouped into intervals 0–50,
51–100, 101–150, and 151–200 m. The
exterior length and width of the nests as well as the length, width, depth of
nest cups, and the height of nests above the water level were measured using a
measuring tape after the nests (20) were abandoned by the birds. The count of adult, and juvenile birds, their
roosting and foraging activities, and interactions with other water bird
species within the wetland were observed using binoculars from a safe distance
(ca. 30 m). All the guidelines and
protocols of nesting studies, as prescribed by Barve
et al. (2020) were followed scrupulously.
No eggs, chicks, and adult birds were handled during the study. The locations of nesting sites were
determined using Garmin Etrex 20x GPS device. Photographs and videos were taken using Nikon
P1000 digital camera. The collected data
were tabulated, analyzed and shown as a graphical
representation.
RESULTS
A total of 3,587 adult
individuals, 467 chicks, and 1,327 active nests of the Common Coot were
enumerated in 30 water bodies. Out of
1,327 nests, 89.75% of nests (n = 1,191) were found constructed in the thick
vegetation of Ipomoea carnea (Figure 2d,e) and
10.25% of nests (n = 136) were found constructed in open water (Figure
2a–c). At the end of the breeding
season, a total of 467 chicks were enumerated (Table 1).
Nest construction
Nine plant species belonging to
seven genera and seven families were utilized by the Common Coot as nesting
materials. Of the nine plant species,
eight were dicotyledons and one monocotyledon.
The birds utilized various plant parts such as twigs, petioles, leaves,
inflorescence, and even entire plants as nesting material. During nest construction, Common coots used
live and dead twigs of I. carnea,
formed base-like structures for nests and added dry twigs brought from nearby
places. The nests are elliptical with a
flattened upper surface containing the nest cup. The major part of the nest
consisted of twigs of I. carnea. Open nests were built on leaves of Nymphaea
spp. or Aponogeton natans
using the twigs of I. carnea along with
various parts of other plant species (Table 2).
Moreover, they added leaves and inflorescence of grass C. zizanoides in the inner surface of the nest cup as
egg lining. Even during incubation, many
nests contained partly eaten fruits of species of genera Nelumbo
and Nymphaea (Image 1,3b).
Abandoned nests (n = 20) after
the breeding season revealed that the nests were found 12–18 cm height above
the water level. The entire length of
the nests including nest cups was in the range of 64.7±21.79 cm and the width
was in the range of 46.95±17.56 cm. The
length of the elliptical-shaped nest cup was in the range of 21.3±3.29 cm and
the width of the nest cup was 9.85±2.52 cm.
The depth of the nest cup was in the range of 7.45±2.63 cm.
Distance between the edges of
water bodies and the locations of nests (both open nests and nests on
vegetation) revealed that a maximum of 49.96 % of nests (n = 663) occurred
within 50 m distance from the edges and 1.88% of nests (n = 25) between 151 and
200 m distance from edges of water bodies.
The percentage of nests that occurred at various distance interval
ranges is given in Figure 2. The clutch
size ranged 3–8 eggs.
The study revealed that the adult
birds continued to expand their nests even after the chicks had grown by adding
plant materials and used the nests as roosting sites. It was observed that chicks also brought
plant materials and added them to the nests.
The size of the nest cup was relatively small when compared to the overall
upper surface area of the nest. Apart
from the nest cup, each nest contained a peculiar ramp-like structure on the
margin. Whenever residents entered the water to harvest lotus/lilies or for
fishing, young chicks jumped into the water, swam, temporarily hid in the
nearby I. carnea vegetation and later
returned to the nests by climbing through the ramps (Image 2j,k). Even partly grown-up chicks used the ramps to
climb into their nests. The present
study revealed that the breeding of the Common Coot concluded during the fourth
week of March 2022. Sporadic nesting (11
nests in May and eight nests in June), however, was observed till the second
week of June 2022.
Foraging
In the present study, 16 plant
species belonging to nine families foraged by the Common Coot were
observed. Out of the 16 species,
five were algae (thallophytes), a
solitary grass species C. dactylon
(monocotyledon) and the remaining 10 species were dicotyledons. The Common Coots swallowed entire colonies of
blue-green alga Aphanothece stagnina and thalli of macro green algae Spirogyra irregularis and Chara
spp. The birds usually dive into the
water and cut off fruits of Nelumbo
nucifera and Nymphaea spp. along with peduncles submerged in water,
take them and placed them in the nests, pluck seeds using beaks, and feed their
chicks. Adults were also observed
consuming such seeds. Apart from
hydrophytes, adult birds were found foraging on terrestrial plants, such as C.
dactylon and Phyla nodiflora
on the banks of water bodies. A list of
plant species and their parts consumed by the birds is given in Table 3. In three instances, the adults collected
small insects on the leaves of Nymphaea spp. and placed them in front of
young chicks in the nests and the chicks swallowed the prey. Eight abandoned nests contained empty shells
of snails.
Chicks
A total of 467 chicks at various
developmental stages were enumerated at the end of the breeding period. Eighty-nine
adults were found moving with a single chick each, 81 adults had two chicks
each, 41 adults had three chicks each, eight adults had four chicks each, and
the remaining 61 chicks were found wandering independently without any
adult/parent birds probably because the parents had abandoned them or the
parent birds might have been killed by predators (Image 2f,g).
Interactions with other birds and
threats
Common Coots maintained strict
nesting territory during the breeding season and no other water birds were
observed in the vicinity of their nesting and foraging sites. Other water bird species, such as Little
Egret Egretta garzetta,
Lesser Duck Aythya affinis,
Indian Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha,
Pheasant-tailed jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus, Little Grebe Tachybaptus
ruficollis and Lesser Whistling Duck Dendrocygna javanica
were found foraging in the water bodies where nests of the Common Coot
occurred. Individual Common Coots used
to chase/attack when other bird species come in the vicinity of their nesting
and foraging sites. Other bird species
stop their activities like swimming, foraging, preening, or perching on aquatic
plants, and become alert and ready to escape whenever a Common Coot moves nearby. In four instances, individuals of Pheasant-tailed
Jacana used abandoned nests of Common Coot as a day roost. Fishing by locals caused disturbance to the
foraging of adults and chicks. No
killing of adult birds/nest predation, however, was observed (Image 4).
DISCUSSION
Nest construction
In southern Algeria, 63.2% of
nests of Common Coot were associated with Phragmites australis
probably to reduce predation risk from the air (Samraoui
& Samraoui 2007).
Emergent vegetation is important for habitat selection by Coots,
presumably because it provides nesting habitats and protection against aerial
predators (Nieoczym & Kloskowski
2018). In the present study, 89.75% of
nests were built in emergent vegetation I. carnea
probably to avoid aerial predators as stated by Samraoui
& Samraoui (2007) and Nieoczym
& Kloskowski (2018). Most of the nests of Common Coot were
associated with T. angustifolia in Algerian Sahara (El-Yamine et al. 2018).
Though T. angustifolia reeds occurred abundantly in the
present study area, the birds did not build nests on these reeds, whereas they
preferred I. carnea vegetation. The study also revealed that 50% of the nests
occurred within 0–50 m and another 35.19% of nests occurred within 51–100 m
distance from edges of water bodies. The
construction of the highest number of nests near the banks is probably due to
the shallow water containing emergent I. carnea
vegetation, the availability of abundant nest material and food sources like
algae and other hydrophytes. Studies
over larger geographical areas, however, may throw light on the causes for the
construction of more nests near the edges of water bodies.
Common Coots rarely raise two
broods per season (Taylor 1998). The
present study reveals that despite the conclusion of breeding during the fourth
week of March 2022, sporadic nesting by a few pairs continued till the second
week of June 2022. It was not possible
to ascertain whether these were cases of late breeding or it was a second
breeding in the year. Nests often remain
used by the family for roosting (Taylor 1998).
In the study sites, adult Common Coots with their juveniles not only
used their nests for roosting but also expanded the existing nests further by
adding fresh nest materials. These
observations corroborate the findings of Taylor (1998).
Foraging
The Common Coot is omnivorous,
feeding on small prey, eggs of other birds, algae, vegetation, seeds and fruits
(Martin et al. 1997). Sago pondweed Stuckenia pectinata
in France and Germany (Allouche & Tamisier 1984; Hilt 2006) and Watermilfoil Myriophyllum verticillatum
and horn-wort Ceratophyllum demersum in China are their main sources of food (Wang
et al. 1990; Zhang & Ma 2011).
Submerged vegetation is an important food source for Common Coot and it
is positively related to its breeding success (Nieoczym
& Kloskowski 2018). The Common Coots exhibit considerable
plasticity in their foraging behaviours by foraging on a wide range of plants
and animal materials, such as algae, macrophytes, seeds, insects, and benthic
invertebrates (Draulans & Vanherck
1987; Howes & Perrow 1994). In the present study
area, diverse animal/plant species, such as snails, insects, five algal
species, and eleven macrophytes including submerged, floating and terrestrial
plants played an important role as a food source of Common Coots. Hence, the present study corroborates the
findings of Martin et al. (1997), Draulans & Vanherck (1987), Howes & Perrow
(1994), and Nieoczym & Kloskowski
(2018).
Conclusion
The present study area harbours
4054 individuals of Common Coot including 467 juveniles and 1327 nests. Birds
collected nest material mainly from I. carnea
and eight other plant species for the construction of nests. The wetland
habitats contained a wide range of food materials and nesting sites. Despite rapid urbanization,
industrialization, population increase, habitat destruction, and decreasing
areas of wetlands, considerable populations of the Common Coot exist in the
study area. A special management plan
could be devised for the area, considering the anthropogenic pressures on the
habitats like fishing, and harvesting of flowers and reeds by residents.
Table 1. Details of nesting
sites, number of birds, nests, distance from water body edges, and chicks of
Common Coot counted in the study area.
|
|
Name of the village/ study
sites |
GPS coordinates |
Lake/ pond |
Number of adult birds counted |
Number of active nests counted |
Open nests |
Nests found in bushes |
Number of nests located from
edges of water bodies |
Total number of chicks counted |
|||
|
0–50 m |
51–100 m |
101–150 m |
151–200 m |
|||||||||
|
1 |
Veedur |
12.073201oN–79.620535oE |
Reservoir |
45 |
16 |
10 |
6 |
0 |
2 |
3 |
11 |
12 |
|
2 |
Veedur |
12.072787oN–79.621395oE |
Lake |
320 |
62 |
28 |
34 |
14 |
27 |
7 |
14 |
72 |
|
3 |
Vallam |
12.253836oN–79.512884oE |
Lake |
130 |
41 |
3 |
38 |
35 |
6 |
0 |
0 |
11 |
|
4 |
Alagramam |
12.174401oN–79.577836oE |
Lake |
600 |
230 |
20 |
210 |
30 |
110 |
90 |
0 |
60 |
|
5 |
Keezhedayalam |
12.170917oN–79.628823oE |
Lake |
170 |
78 |
4 |
74 |
32 |
12 |
34 |
0 |
22 |
|
6 |
Thenkalavai |
12.178328oN–79.642219oE |
Lake |
18 |
6 |
0 |
6 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
0 |
8 |
|
7 |
Annamputhur |
12.173768oN–79.674404oE |
Lake |
169 |
56 |
0 |
56 |
27 |
9 |
20 |
0 |
12 |
|
8 |
Omandur |
12.170285oN–79.684428oE |
Lake |
8 |
2 |
0 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
|
9 |
Urani |
12.154740oN–79.907088oE |
Lake |
260 |
110 |
10 |
100 |
70 |
40 |
0 |
0 |
43 |
|
10 |
Munoor |
12.188669oN–79.813499oE |
Lake |
68 |
17 |
0 |
17 |
13 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
7 |
|
11 |
Thenkolapakam |
12.122414oN–79.633937oE |
Lake |
10 |
4 |
0 |
4 |
3 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
6 |
|
12 |
Ponnampoondi |
12.050018oN–79.622626oE |
Lake |
320 |
130 |
20 |
110 |
70 |
60 |
0 |
0 |
23 |
|
13 |
Eraiyur |
12.064028oN–79.649245oE |
Lake |
210 |
65 |
0 |
65 |
35 |
20 |
10 |
0 |
17 |
|
14 |
Ambuzhukai |
12.053135oN–79.652319oE |
Lake |
215 |
110 |
25 |
85 |
60 |
50 |
0 |
0 |
34 |
|
15 |
Pomboor |
12.039517oN–79.601541oE |
Lake |
2 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
16 |
Siruvai |
12.085022oN–79.605374oE |
Lake |
12 |
3 |
0 |
3 |
2 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
6 |
|
17 |
Kooteripet |
12.152769oN–79.602806oE |
Lake |
12 |
4 |
0 |
4 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
|
18 |
Kodima |
12.168730oN–79.596345oE |
Lake |
22 |
9 |
0 |
9 |
6 |
3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
19 |
Kenipet |
12.172076oN–79.606865oE |
Lake |
27 |
11 |
0 |
11 |
8 |
3 |
0 |
0 |
9 |
|
20 |
Thenpasiyar |
12.188961oN–79.613161oE |
Lake |
70 |
29 |
4 |
25 |
23 |
6 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
21 |
Jakkampettai |
12.188895oN–79.610063oE |
Lake |
32 |
13 |
0 |
13 |
9 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
|
22 |
Karnavoor |
12.195530oN–79.651071oE |
Lake |
278 |
112 |
12 |
100 |
59 |
53 |
0 |
0 |
34 |
|
23 |
Deevanur |
12.259598oN–79.557778oE |
Lake |
73 |
29 |
0 |
29 |
21 |
8 |
0 |
0 |
12 |
|
24 |
Mannampoondi |
12.292093oN–79.557769oE |
Lake |
43 |
16 |
0 |
16 |
12 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
5 |
|
25 |
P.S. Palayam |
11.962182oN–79.634326oE |
Lake |
10 |
4 |
0 |
4 |
3 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
26 |
Sorathur |
12.206139oN–79.458818oE |
Lake |
36 |
16 |
0 |
16 |
9 |
7 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
27 |
Kanniyam |
12.087708oN–79.635536oE |
Lake |
14 |
6 |
0 |
6 |
4 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
28 |
Kallakulathur |
12.128919oN–79.649977oE |
Lake |
212 |
76 |
0 |
76 |
55 |
17 |
4 |
0 |
45 |
|
29 |
Vengai |
12.164787oN–79.659901oE |
Lake |
22 |
7 |
0 |
7 |
4 |
3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
30 |
Kazhuveli |
12.150835oN–79.905336oE |
Lake |
179 |
64 |
0 |
64 |
55 |
9 |
0 |
0 |
21 |
|
Total |
3587 |
1327 |
136 |
1191 |
663 |
467 |
172 |
25 |
467 |
|||
Table 2. List of plant species
used as nest materials by the Common Coot in the study area.d—Nest
built on Ipomoea carnea vegetation.
|
|
Name of the plant |
Family |
Plant parts used as nest
materials |
|
1 |
Ipomoea carnea Jacq. |
Convolvulaceae |
Twigs |
|
2 |
Nymphaea pubescens Willd. |
Nymphaeaceae |
Leaves and petiole |
|
3 |
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. |
Leaves and petiole |
|
|
4 |
Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl.
& K. Krasuse |
Aponogetonaceae |
Entire plant |
|
5 |
Polygonum hydropier (L.) Delabre |
Polygonaceae |
Twigs |
|
6 |
Polygonum barbatum L. |
Twigs |
|
|
7 |
Pentapetes phoenicea L. |
Malvaceae |
Twigs |
|
8. |
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle |
Hydrocharitaceae |
Twigs |
|
9 |
Chrysopogon ziznoides (L.) Roberty |
Poaceae |
Leaf blades and inflorescence. |
Table 3. List of plant species
and their parts fed by the Common Coot in the study area.
|
|
Name of the plant |
Family |
Plant parts used |
|
1 |
Aphanothece stagnina (Spreng.) A. Braun |
Cyanophyceae |
Entire algal colony. |
|
2 |
Spirogyra irregularis Ngeli ex Kutzing |
Zygnemataceae |
Entire algal colony. |
|
3 |
Chara flaccida A. Braun |
Charophyceae |
Entire algal thallus. |
|
4 |
Chara vulgaris (L.) |
Entire algal thallus. |
|
|
5 |
Chara zeylanica Klein ex Willd. |
Entire algal thallus. |
|
|
6 |
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle |
Hydrocharitaceae |
Entire plant. |
|
7 |
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. |
Stem, young buds, leaves, and
flowers. |
|
|
8 |
Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb. ex Wight) Thwaites |
Stem, Leaves, and flowers. |
|
|
9 |
Najas minor All. |
Entire plant |
|
|
10 |
Ceratophyllum demersum (L.) |
Ceratophyllaceae |
Entire plant |
|
11 |
Lemna gibba (L.) |
Lemnaceae |
Entire plant |
|
12 |
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. |
Poaceae |
Leaves |
|
13 |
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. |
Nymphaeaceae |
Stamen, pistil, and seeds |
|
14 |
Nymphaea pubescens Willd. |
Stamen, pistil, and seeds. |
|
|
15 |
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. |
Stamen, pistil, and seeds |
|
|
16 |
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene |
Verbenaceae |
Leaves, tender stems, and
inflorescence. |
For figure &
images - - click here for full PDF
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