On the occurrence of Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra (Carnivora: Mustelidae) in Neeru stream of Chenab catchment, Jammu & Kashmir, India

: This communication reports the first photographic record of Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra in a hill stream in Jammu & Kashmir, putting an end to doubts over its presence in the upper Chenab catchment. Three individuals were photographed during a limited camera trap survey conducted in Neeru stream, a left bank tributary of river Chenab during mid-October 2020. We argue that rapid human population influx, infrastructure expansion


INTRODUCTION
Otters, the semi-aquatic mammals of the family Mustelidae with seven genera and 13 species are found in every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra, a European and Asian member of the Otter subfamily Lutrinae is an elusive, solitary species with the largest range of any palearctic mammal covering parts of three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa (Corbet 1996). Seven subspecies of Eurasian Otter (Bhattacharya et al. 2019) include L.l. nair (Cuvier, 1823 found in southern India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, & Myanmar;L.l. kutab (Schinz, 1844) (Hussain 1993;Prater 1998). The species has been recorded from the northern mountains of Pakistan, Punatshanghchu basin of Bhutan (Yoxon & Yoxon 2019), and Nepal (Basnet et al. 2019;Shrestha et al. 2021).
Eurasian Otter is regarded as a flagship species and indicator of high-quality aquatic habitats (Macdonald & Mason 1994;Cianfrani et al. 2011) that obtains all its food from aquatic systems (Clavero et al. 2003;Krawczyk et al. 2016). They inhabit a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, marshes, streams, swamp forests, and coastal areas (Mason & Macdonald 1986). They occupy cold Himalayan streams and rivers, much like their temperate cousins across Europe and Asia (Prakash 2022), reaching 3,660 m in the Himalaya during summers (Prater 1971). Most of the animal activity is restricted to a narrow land-water interface (Kruuk et al. 1994), as they prefer swiftly flowing upper river sections (Kruuk 1995) which coincides with the upward migration of the carp and other fish spawning.
The species is classified as 'Near Threatened' (Loy et al. 2022) on the IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I of CITES (CITES 2023). The species became extinct in Japan in 1979 (Roos et al. 2015;Waku et al. 2016) and its populations in Europe and developing Asian countries have drastically declined in recent years (Balestrieri et al. 2016;Jha et al. 2020). The species is still hunted for their pelt, food, sport, and persecuted as a pest in many Asian countries, particularly China, India, and Nepal (Gomez et al. 2016). Along with habitat loss and pollution, climate change is a major cause of their declining population (Gomez et al. 2016;Gupta et al. 2020). After a catastrophic drop, otters are making a comeback across Europe (Loy et al. 2009(Loy et al. , 2010Romanowski et al. 2013), and other regions possibly as a result of legal protection and the ban on Polychlorinated biphenyls .
The Indian Otter population is severely fragmented across its distribution range, with isolated populations primarily confined to protected areas (Hussain 1999;Nawab 2007Nawab , 2009Nawab & Gautam 2008) and highaltitude riverine ecosystems in the Indian Himalayan region (Pal et al. 2021). It has so far been reported from Nayamjang Chu River, Arunachal Pradesh ( Shawl et al. (2008) confirmed its presence in Indus and its tributaries in Ladakh. Following the credible accounts of its historical presence in Neeru stream, researchers from the Institute of Mountain Environment, Bhaderwah conducted extensive investigations that included questionnaire surveys, direct surveys, and camera trapping including a joint sign survey in collaboration with Wild Otters Research Private Limited during July 2019. The current communication describes the first photographic record of this elusive semi-aquatic animal in Neeru stream.

Study area
The study area is characterized by typical mountainous terrain comprised of high mountains, wide valleys, cliffs and gorges, and vast alpine meadows. The region is drained by Neeru stream, a 30-km long linear hydro-morphological unit (Image 1) that originates in Kailash Lake (3,900 m) and drains into the Chenab River at Pul-Doda (848 m). The perennial stream contributed by 13 major tributaries flows through a number of small villages, semi-urban, and urbanised areas, with Bhaderwah being the largest settlement (Image 1). The region is distinguished by its usual cold climate, with short summers and long dry winters. The temperature varies with seasons and elevation and reaches sub-zero during the winters. Precipitation is largely determined by topography, ranging from 1,750 mm at lower and intermediate altitudes (<1,500 m) to 800 mm over 2,000 m. The vegetation varies from sub-temperate scrub at lower elevations to pure conifers and broad leavedconifer mixed at the mid, and spruce-fir and kharsu oak at higher elevations marking the tree line.

Field data collection
We conducted a questionnaire survey in the upper Neeru stretch during 2016 and 2017 and found evidence of their historical presence. Following that, we initiated primary surveys for direct and indirect sightings looking for fresh sign (tracks; scats/spraints; evidence of foraging like remains of animal prey, especially, fish scales or bones and cartilages) lodging and dens (Gallant et al. 2008;Crimmins et al. 2009;Lesmeister & Nielsen 2011;Schooley et al. 2012) along the main channel and its major tributaries during 2019-2021. Although we were unable to establish a direct sighting, we were able to locate a few latrines in 2020. Subsequently, we deployed 22570 J TT five infra-red cameras at three probable locations like the mouth of dens, trails leading to dens, and stream banks near the latrine sites. The cameras were placed roughly 100 m apart and were retained in the field for five days from 17 to 21 October 2020.

RESULTS
The questionnaire surveys of 2016-17 indicated that otters inhabited along the whole length of the Neeru stream and all of its tributaries. The animal is locally known as 'Huder' or 'Hud'. According to the majority of respondents, the fish-eating animals resemble mongooses with a somewhat greyer coat and bigger stature. When foraging, most people described the sinuous up and down movement of a swimming otter, that scans its surroundings with just its head above water. To ascertain the presence of the animal, the surveys were conducted in July 2019, October 2020 and August 2021. On 15 October 2020, the team spotted a latrine mound with dark, greasy poop at the mouth of the holt near Bhalla (33.060 o N to 75.626 o E, 1,240 m). Five camera traps were deployed at three sites which appeared to us as the probable dens of the otters. While sites 1 and 2 yielded no results, Site-3, the mouth of the den housing the latrine site, captured many photographs of two adults and one sub-adult (Image 2), confirming its presence. On 28 August 2021, while re-exploring the site, the team discovered scratches and marks in a nearby narrow crevice that was presumably used for resting and grooming (Image 3).
The species was identified as a Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra based on a dark brown dorsal coat with a pale silvery tinge on the neck, rounded head with stiff white vibrissae around the muzzle, semi-webbed feet with discernible toes, elongated body, and dorsoventrally flattened tail (Hussain 2013;Menon 2014). Most of the images were captured during the early morning. The location of otter sighting is characterised by a small Image 2. Camera trap images of Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra: 1-3-adults | 4-sub-adult. Taxa

DISCUSSION
A considerable decline in the otter population in the Neeru stream over the past two decades, as indicated in the questionnaire surveys, raises concerns about the changing ecological dynamics of the stream. The sole sighting of the family, however, raised hope of the species existence and survival in the region. Since their presence goes unrecognised due to their secretive, solitary, and nocturnal habits (Pal et al. 2021), our limited survey does not rule out the presence of otter in other sections of the main channel and that of tributaries those are pristine. Though the otters have wide habitat preferences in terms of where they live, swim, hunt, and raise their young (Kruuk 1995;Reid et al. 2013), their preferred habitat is much more specific (Anoop & Hussain 2004). River topography affects the prey availability and consequently the distribution of otters. Otters largely prefer shallow braided river channels with shallow depth, moderate current, patches of muddy and sand substrate on the shoreline, and dense escape cover of vegetation in riparian habitats (Hussain & Choudhury 1997;Anoop & Hussain 2004;Acharya et al. 2010;Romanowski et al. 2013). Neeru being a typical hill stream offer but limited habitat conditions with rocky banks, deep crevices, thin sand shoulders, dense escape cover, and steep slopes. Several studies confirmed that otters avoid polluted water and persist in low-anthropogenic landscapes (Romanowski et al. 2013;Calzada et al. 2022) though in low numbers (Baltrūnaitė et al. 2009). Bhaderwah, a popular tourist destination over the years has experienced extensive urbanisation and infrastructure development, resulting in degraded surface water quality of Neeru stream over its whole course (Kumar et al. 2019(Kumar et al. , 2022. The stream serves as a sink for urban wastes, notably the plastic trash that penetrates crevices and holts during floods and clogs them. Stream bed mining for construction materials fragments habitats hence threatening their existence. Jenkins & Burrows (1980) and Macdonald & Mason (1983) revealed that poor-quality habitats are occasionally visited by otters. Several incidents of retaliatory killings, poaching, and predation by feral dogs have been reported by the locals during the interactions. Having established its presence, the study urges continued investigations on the species to better understand their distribution, ecology, and threat status as well as to develop appropriate conservation and management plans for its survival in the region.