Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2023 | 15(8): 23729–23741
ISSN 0974-7907
(Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8075.15.8.23729-23741
#8075 | Received 26
June 2022 | Final received 09 June 2023 | Finally accepted 04 July 2023
Seasonal variation and habitat
role in distribution and activity patterns of Red-wattled
Lapwing Vanellus indicus (Boddaert, 1783) (Aves: Charadriiformes:
Charadriidae) in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Sahil Gupta 1 & Kanan Saxena
2
1,2 Department of Zoology, Govt.
Meera Girls College, Mohanlal Sukhadia University,
Udaipur, Rajasthan 313001, India.
1 sgsahil14@gmail.com, 2 kananamitsaxena@gmail.com
(corresponding author)
Editor: H. Byju,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 August
2023 (online & print)
Citation: Gupta, S. & K. Saxena (2023). Seasonal
variation and habitat role in distribution and activity patterns of Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus
(Boddaert, 1783)
(Aves: Charadriiformes: Charadriidae) in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 15(8):
23729–23741. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.8075.15.8.23729-23741
Copyright: © Gupta & Saxena 2023. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Sahil Gupta is a
research scholar at Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. His interests include ecological and ethological studies on birds. He has so far published five articles in reputed journals. Kanan Saxena is
professor and head at Department of Zoology, Government Meera Girls College, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. She has several research papers to her credit and is recognized for her contribution in diverse fields such as ethology, entomology and toxicology. She has experience of 31 years in teaching & research.
Author contributions: SG carried out research work on Red-wattled lapwings under the supervision of Prof. Kanan Saxena. All the photographs and data were collected by him. He performed statistical analyses of data and wrote the manuscript. KS laid out the concept and framework of the
research work. The interpretation of results was carried out by her. The manuscript was written under her guidance.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the authorities and
staff of Government Meera Girls College and Mohanlal Sukhadia
University for their constant support and timely help during each stage of this
research work. We are highly grateful to our families for their continuous
encouragement and motivation.
Abstract: Red-wattled
Lapwings Vanellus indicus are resident
waders in Asia. They usually inhabit areas close to water and are mainly
insectivorous. Their principal habitats are grasslands, wetlands, arable lands,
gardens and open forests. These highly active and vocal birds are known for
their wide range of distraction displays. A field investigation of distribution
across different seasons and diverse habitats in Udaipur, Rajasthan was
conducted from 2019 to 2021. Populations of lapwings varied
significantly among locations, with the largest documented at Fateh Sagar Lake and the lowest at Rang Sagar
Lake. Both habitat types and seasons (summer, monsoon and winter) had
significant effects on lapwing distribution. Wetlands were the most preferred
habitat at ten major study locations, and the monsoon was found to be the most
favored season. Bird activity patterns did not exhibit significant variation
with seasons, with locomotion, vigilance, feeding and maintenance being the
most performed activities.
Keywords: Behavioral activities, habitat
preference, lapwings, seasonal effect, vigilance.
Abbreviations: MLSU—Mohanlal Sukhadia
University | RCA—Rajasthan College of Agriculture
Introduction
Red-wattled
Lapwings Vanellus indicus are resident
waders that usually inhabit areas close to water. They are widely distributed
throughout Asia, having been reported from India, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman,
Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia,
China, Indonesia, Israel, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam (Ali & Ripley
2001; Wiersma & Kirwan 2020; BirdLife
International 2023). This species is found in lowlands up to 1,800 m in Sri
Lanka, and to at least 2,300 m in the Himalaya. The principal habitats of
lapwings are grasslands, wetlands, arable lands, gardens, and open forests
(Wiersma & Kirwan 2019). The global population is estimated to be about
50,000 to 60,000 individuals (BirdLife International
2023). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species classifies Red-wattled Lapwing as ‘Least Concern’, and it is listed under
Schedule IV of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
The literature on the population
structure and distribution of Red-wattled Lapwing is
limited, and a proper assessment of populations is lacking, probably due to a
perceived absence of immediate threats to the species. However, some reports do
indicate threats to lapwing populations and habitats. Karakas (2016) recorded
20–30 breeding pairs in Turkey, and reported that the
construction of dams posed a threat to the habitats of this species causing
population decline and moderate range expansion in search of suitable habitats.
Gupta & Kaushik (2011) highlighted habitat destruction and threats to
lapwings in Kurukshetra, Haryana.
Red-wattled
Lapwings are highly active and vocal birds that are known for their wide range
of distraction displays (Kalsi & Khera 1987).
These birds are mainly insectivorous but also are known to feed on food grains
(Babi 1987), molluscs (Madhava & Botejue 2011) and fishes (Greeshma
& Jayson 2019). Studies on the seasonal variations as well as variations in
the daily activity patterns with breeding and non-breeding periods have not
been reported earlier.
Udaipur city offers unique
habitat diversity such as mountain ranges, elevated plateaus, green plains,
forests, rivers, and wetlands which explains the choice of this city as the
field for study. The presence of ample natural resources such as food and water
make the city a perfect haven for bird species such as Red-wattled
Lapwings. Thus, the study was conducted to provide baseline information
regarding the distribution pattern, habitat preference, and activity patterns of
Red-wattled Lapwing at 10 major locations covering
diverse habitats of Udaipur city.
Materials
and Methods
Study area
The field survey was carried out
in different areas of Udaipur City (24.585° N and 73.712° E), southern
Rajasthan, India between 01 September 2019 to 30 September 2021. The study was
conducted during the three main seasons viz. summer (March to June), monsoon
(July to September), and winter (October to February). Diverse habitats of Red-wattled Lapwings, such as wetlands, grasslands, open
fields, river banks, islands, and gardens were selected for the assessment. The
sampling sites were randomly chosen and their GPS (global positioning system)
coordinates were determined using Garmin eTrex 20x
(Appendix 1, Image 1a) for documenting the distribution pattern of Red-wattled Lapwings. The Red-wattled
Lapwings were recorded in wetlands (Lake Fateh Sagar,
Lake Pichola, Rang Sagar
Lake, Goverdhan Sagar Lake,
and Ayad River), crop-fields (farms near Fateh Sagar
Lake, Ayad River, and agricultural lands in Rajasthan College of Agriculture
(RCA) and Mohanlal Sukhadia University (MLSU)
campuses), grasslands (inside MLSU, areas around Fateh Sagar
Lake, Goverdhan Sagar Lake,
Ayad River, and Sajjangarh Biological Park), urban
parks (Sukhadia Memorial Park and Gulab Bagh),
protected areas (Sajjangarh Biological Park and Gulab
Bagh), institutional green spaces (MLSU and RCA campuses) and constructed buildings, roads, and
footpaths (areas around Fateh Sagar Lake, Pichola Lake, Rang Sagar
Lake, Goverdhan
Sagar Lake, MLSU, and Ayad River) as shown in Image
1b.
Population monitoring
The population survey was carried
out by adopting the point count method (Bibby et al. 2000). A total of 288
vantage points (maintained 200 m between two sites) spanning a total area of
37.5 km2. We spent 5 min at each site and then started documentation
of the lapwings without disturbing them. Birds were recorded using binoculars
(Nikon Aculon A211 8 x 42) as well as auditory
detections (using RecForge II app on a smartphone)
within a range of 30 m at each site. Flying birds were not recorded. To analyze
the correlation between the influence of season and habitat preference, the
number of birds recorded during the first week of the month were selected for
each season, viz.: January for winter, June for summer, and September for
monsoon (Chaudhury & Koli 2018).
Activity pattern sampling
Focal sampling and scan sampling
techniques (Altmann 1974) were employed to observe the activity
patterns of lapwings daily between 0700–1000 h, 1200–1300 h, and 1600–1800 h
during different seasons. About 6–8 pairs of birds were randomly selected from
diverse habitats. The behaviour was recorded and
observed using binoculars at a distance of 15 m to avoid disturbance. Each bird
was observed at 5 min time intervals.
The activity patterns of selected
birds were recorded for 480 hours during the entire study time. The following
activity patterns of Red-wattled Lapwings were
observed during the investigation: (i) locomotion,
(ii) maintenance, (iii) feeding, (iv) vigilance, (v) vocalizations, (vi)
displays, (vii) inactivity, (viii) social interaction, and (ix) miscellaneous
activities. Since the birds were not tagged, there was a possibility of
recording the activity of birds more than once. However, the probability of
deviation in data due to the error gets reduced because the same bird was not
recorded more than once during the time of scanning. To ensure that the same
bird was not observed more than once during the scanning time, observations
were made only of birds that were present throughout the observation time. The
activity of a bird that flew away or towards the selected site during a
particular observation time was not recorded. Moreover, each bird was observed
only for 5 min during every observation cycle and and
if birds are presumed to alter their activities with specific factors such as
breeding or non-breeding seasons and time, then according to Maruyama et al.
2010, the spotting of same individual more than once doesn’t imply strong
pseudo-replication.
Statistical analyses
The statistical analyses were
carried out using GraphPad Prism and Microsoft Excel software. Two-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the significance of the population status
of Red-wattled Lapwings in different months (Factor
1) at various sampling sites (Factor 2). Similarly, the numbers of lapwings in
diverse habitats (Factor 1) during different seasons (Factor 2) were also
tested using the two-way ANOVA method. Mann-Whitney U test and two-way ANOVA
were used to study the activities of the birds across different months. A
comparative analysis of activities between breeding and the non-breeding season
was also performed by carrying out Mann-Whitney U test and multiple-t tests.
Further, the activities at various periods during breeding and non-breeding
season were also analyzed by two-way ANOVA. Data were computed at a probability
level of 5% and were used as the minimal criteria of significance.
Results
During the current study, 2269
(Mean value = 226.9) Red-wattled Lapwings were
observed in the period from September 2019 to August 2020, while 2350 (Mean
value = 235) lapwings were recorded during the period between October 2020 and
September 2021.
Maximum population of Red-wattled Lapwing was found at Lake Fateh Sagar
(41.5 ± 20.45) and minimum at Rang Sagar Lake (3.2 ±
2.7) during the observation period from 2019 to 2020. The statistical analysis
of data presented in Table 1 revealed that the variation of the population at
diverse locations (F = 32.37; p <0.0001; df = 9)
was slightly more significant than that with different months (F = 26.02; p
<0.0001; df = 8). The highest population was
recorded in August 2020 (39.60 ± 22.72) while the lowest was in January 2020
(12.4 ± 7.63) (Figure 1a).
During the study period from 2020
to 2021, the highest population occurred at Fateh Sagar
(61.70 ± 14.22) while the lowest population was found at Sukhadia
Memorial Park (3.00 ± 2.31) (Figure 1b). On performing ANOVA for Table 1, the
result showed that the population varied highly significantly at various sites
(F = 105.30; p <0.0001; df = 9) compared to
different months (F = 26.71; p <0.0001; df = 9).
The highest population was observed in August 2021 (37.70 ± 24.91) while the
least was in January 2021 (15.10 ± 14.45).
Combining the results of both
years, the highest population was found at Lake Fateh Sagar
(51.47 ± 14.28) and the lowest at Rang Sagar Lake
(3.4 ± 0.28).
Further, the varied habitats and
seasons on the population status of Red-wattled
Lapwings were also analyzed (Figure 2). The Red-wattled
Lapwings existed in diverse habitats (Image 2). It was found that the nature of
the habitat produced a highly significant impact on the population (F = 67.62;
p <0.0001; df = 6). The highest population
occurred in wetlands (50 ± 13.34) followed by crop fields (21.33 ± 9.85),
protected areas encompassing scrub forests and shrubland (20 ± 7.82),
grasslands (18.83 ± 9.35), institutional green spaces (18.33 ± 8.11), urban
parks or gardens (15.83 ± 7.49) and constructed buildings, footpaths &
roads (11.5 ± 3.39) (Table 2). Although the wetland was the most preferred
habitat, the lowest numbers of lapwings were recorded at Rang Sagar Lake. This may be due to the indiscriminate dumping
of garbage and sewage in the lake as well as excessive human disturbances near
this wetland. Conversely, the presence of these birds near human habitation
such as urban parks and constructed buildings indicates that these birds have
adapted well to the anthropogenic pressure.
Further, variation of the
population across different habitats in diverse seasons also showed
significance (F = 33.92; p <0.0001; df = 8). The
overall highest population of lapwings in various seasons was recorded in
monsoon (33.14 ± 1.11) followed by summer (19.86 ± 1.21) and winter (14.57 ±
0.61) during the study periods (Table 2).
On the contrary, the number of individuals was higher in the wetlands in
the summer season.
The activity patterns of Red-wattled Lapwings studied during the periods 2019–2020 and
2020–2021 did not show any significant variation by performing Mann Whitney
U-test (U = 39; p = 0.9314). A two-way ANOVA revealed that the percentage of
each activity varied highly significantly across different months (F = 218.4; p
<0.0001; df = 8) but the percentage of all
activities in a particular month did not vary considerably (F = 0.0072; p
>0.9999; df = 8) in 2019–2020 (Table 3). For the
2020–2021 study period, again the percentage of each activity varied
significantly across different months (F = 182.6; p <0.0001; df = 8) but the percentage of all activities in a
particular month showed insignificant variation (F = 0.0019; p> 0.9999; df = 8) (Table 3).
The analysis of activity patterns
during the breeding and non-breeding season showed that there were no
significant differences in the behaviours during both
seasons (Figure 3) (Mann Whitney U = 40; p >0.9999). During the breeding
season, vigilance (40.31%), locomotion (16.89%), maintenance (12.73%), and
foraging (12.22%) were the main activities followed by inactivity (9.72%),
miscellaneous activities (3.14%), vocalization (2.14%), defense (2.07%), and
social interactions (0.78%) (Table 4). A two-way ANOVA at different periods of
the day revealed that each activity varied significantly at different times
during the breeding season (F = 194.5; p <0.0001; df
= 8) but there was no major difference in all activities performed in a
particular period (F = 2.29; p = 0.0712; df = 5)
(Table 4, Figure 4a).
The major activities of Red-wattled Lapwing during the non-breeding season were
vigilance (30.66%) followed by locomotion (21.21%), feeding (16.17),
maintenance (15.19%), and other activities such as inactivity (10.02%),
miscellaneous (2.74%), defense (1.36%), vocalizations (1.94%), and social
interactions (0.71%) (Table 4). Multiple t-tests for activities in breeding and
non-breeding seasons revealed that significant differences exist in vigilance
(t ratio = 5.571; p = 0.000182; df = 10; q-value =
0.000645) and defense (t ratio = 6.587; p = 0.000062; df
= 10; q-value = 0.000437) (Table 4). In the non-breeding season, each activity
at different periods of the day (F = 230.6; p <0.0001; df
= 8), as well as activities performed in a particular period (F = 2.29; p =
0.0712; df = 5), showed noteworthy variation, the
former being far more significant than the latter (Table 4, Figure 4b).
Overall, the results show that
amongst all the activities displayed during the study period, the Red-wattled Lapwing showed the highest level of vigilance
activity (alert posture/crouched in alert, neck usually extended forward with
upright posture and horizontal bill) throughout the months of breeding as well
as non-breeding seasons. Locomotion (walking, running, and flying) was the
second most performed activity. Feeding (foraging- foraging-stop-run-peck, foot
stirring as well as prey handling) and maintenance (preening, bathing,
scratching, stretching, grooming legs with bill, and shaking the plumage) were
the next most important activities. It was found that during the non-breeding
season, the birds were less vigilant and spent more time feeding, especially
during morning and late afternoon.
Red-wattled
Lapwings were often observed standing still or resting during the study
schedule. It was more prominent during the evening hour (1700–1800 h).
Miscellaneous activities such as disheveling of feathers, tail shaking,
stomping the ground, head lowering, spreading wings, and defecating were also
demonstrated by Red-wattled Lapwing during the
investigation.
The defense strategies adopted by
Red-wattled Lapwing included distraction displays like
injury feigning, crouched run, false brooding, false feeding, aggression and
mobbing, escape behaviour, and swooping. The lapwings
showed defense behaviour and uttered loud alarm calls
more during the breeding season (March to September) to protect their nests and
young ones from predators.
Red wattled-Lapwings
were also spotted interacting among themselves as well as found in association
with birds like Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis,
Little Cormorant Microcarbo niger, Red-naped Ibis Pseudibis papillosa, Painted
Stork Mycteria leucocephala,
Asian Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans,
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis,
and mammals like cattle. The lapwings were frequently seen roosting with birds
like cormorants and alerting other bird species by making alarm calls. Two
intra- and one inter-specific conflicts were observed. The intra-specific
conflicts were for territory and mate while the interspecific fight with Cattle
Egret Bubulcus ibis was for food. We
observed that when predators like crows or dogs were sighted, lapwings showed
active defense behaviour, especially during the
breeding season. We also documented that during the non-breeding season, a
foraging lapwing was not found to be scared in the presence of a dog who was at
less than 1 m. Our observations revealed that when humans were at 5 m or less,
the Red-wattled Lapwings were often observed uttering
loud calls, running, and on approaching closer, the birds often flew away.
Thus, a diverse range of behaviour of Red-wattled Lapwings was observed during our study.
Discussions
Population Studies on Red-wattled Lapwings
The overall highest population
was found at Fateh Sagar Lake while the lowest was
recorded at Rang Sagar Lake, which could probably be
ascribed to several factors such as high level of human disturbance,
indiscriminate dumping of garbage and poor sewage management of Rang Sagar Lake (Pillai 2000) rendering it one of the most
polluted lakes of Udaipur city and unsuitable habitat for lapwings. The
breeding season of Red-wattled Lapwing extends from
March to August (Kumar et al. 2005). The occurrence of the highest number of
Red-wattled Lapwings in August and the lowest number
of lapwings in January is probably because August and January coincide with the
breeding and non-breeding seasons of these birds, respectively.
Red-wattled
Lapwings usually prefer open areas near water resources (Wiersma & Kirwan
2019). In our surveys the birds were found over a wide range of open habitats
such as croplands, grasslands, wetlands, protected areas, institutional green
spaces, constructed buildings, roads, footpaths, etc. which corroborate with
earlier observations (Ali 1996; del Hoyo et al. 1996;
Ali & Ripley 2001; Narwade et al. 2010; Sethi et al. 2011; Muralidhar
& Barve 2013). The habitat preference of lapwings
reveals that the proximity of water and food resources, as well as the level of
disturbance, play key factors in deciding the dwelling sites of these birds.
This correlates with previous studies on shorebirds, waders, and other
terrestrial birds (Smith et al. 2007; Verma & Murmu 2015). Further, the presence of these birds near
human habitations such as urban parks and construction sites confirms that
these birds have adapted very well to anthropogenic pressures.
The effect of seasonal variation
on the distribution of Red-wattled Lapwings across
different habitats of Udaipur City reveals that the monsoon season is the most
favorable season for these birds followed by summer and winter. The highest
population of birds during monsoon could be attributed to the abundance of food
(in the form of insects) and water (Delgado & Moreira 2010; Franca et al.
2020). Red-wattled Lapwings are also known to feed on
food grains (Babi 1987). Therefore, the high population of Red-wattled Lapwings in croplands during the monsoon could be
attributed to the presence of harvest of maize and sorghum (Jat
et al. 2004; Lin 2005). Also, during monsoon, growth of wild grass and
vegetation increases across different habitats like protected areas,
grasslands, institutional green spaces, urban parks or gardens, along roads,
and empty plots, thus providing shelter along with insects as food to lapwings.
The wetlands were the most
preferred sites during all seasons. However, unlike other habitats where the
lapwings’ population was higher during monsoon, at wetlands the trend was
reversed, the population was lesser than that in summer. This is because during
monsoon due to rain, the water level increases thereby flooding the islands of
wetlands (Kushlan 1981; Chaudhury & Koli 2018). So, during monsoon, the Red-wattled
Lapwings were mainly encountered on the embankment of the wetlands and not on
the islands. The highest population of lapwings was recorded at the wetlands
during summer (breeding season) because the shallow wetlands serve as breeding
as well as feeding grounds for these birds. The most preferred site of lapwings
during winter was also shallow wetlands, this is perhaps due to decreased water
level, the wetland serves as feeding as well as social interactions grounds for
the birds (Chaudhury &Koli 2018).
Activity Patterns
The investigation of the activity
pattern of Red-wattled Lapwings in the present study
revealed that a major part of their routine includes vigilance, locomotion,
feeding and maintenance. Similar prominence of the above-mentioned activities
has also been noted in other species of lapwings such as the Southern Lapwing Vanellus chilenesis
(Maruyama et al. 2010) and River Lapwing Vanellus
duvaucelii (Mishra et al. 2018). This confirms
the active and vigilant nature of lapwings. During the study, it was observed
that lapwings were vigilant during both breeding and non-breeding seasons and
different periods from morning to evening. The percentage of vigilance was
higher in the breeding season than in the non-breeding season. This could be
due to the ground/shallow feeding as well as ground-nesting nature of the bird,
which requires constant vigil against any predator or other risk factors for
their enhanced survival (Lendrem 1986; Walters
1990).
Locomotion was the second most
recorded activity. Locomotion is an important activity of birds that helps them
to move from one place to another in search of food, water, shelter, nesting
sites, and even as defense (escape) to move away from potential threats.
Feeding and maintenance were the
next most visible activities of Red-wattled Lapwings.
Maintenance is an imperative activity that contributes to the fitness of birds
and keeps away parasites (Bush & Clayton 2018). This is perhaps because as
reported in certain birds, ritualized preening has become part of courtship
displays performed during breeding (Howe 1975) while in some birds, the
preening oil is used to attract mates (Johansson & Jones 2007; Hirao et al. 2009).
The other behaviours
displayed by Red-wattled Lapwings included defense,
vocalization, social interactions, inactivity, and miscellaneous activities.
Inactivity (sleeping, standing, or resting) provides them rest and helps in
conserving energy (Maruyama et al. 2010).
The birds of the Charadriidae family including Red-wattled
Lapwings are known for their characteristic defense strategies and
vocalizations (Kalsi & Khera 1987; Walters 1990;
Mishra & Kumar 2022). Vocalizations are an important part and parcel of
their day-to-day activities. Though calls are less prominent than vigilance,
feeding, locomotion, and maintenance activities these are quite an important
mode of communication in lapwings.
Conclusion
The study suggests that Red-wattled Lapwings thrive across different habitats in
Udaipur city throughout all seasons, with monsoon being the most favoured season. The primary habitats of these birds were
found to be wetlands due to the presence of ample food and water resources.
However, the lowest occurrence of lapwings in Rang Sagar
Lake indicates that high level of disturbance and water pollution are
anthropogenically induced threats to these birds. The study also revealed that
breeding and non-breeding seasons did not produce a significant impact on the
activity patterns of lapwings. Moreover, these birds are highly vigilant and
vocal and display a broad range of activity patterns including feeding,
locomotion, maintenance, defense, social interactions, resting, and other
miscellaneous activities which supports their survival.
Overall, it can be ascertained
from the present study that the availability of wide-ranging habitats, abundant
supply of food and water, and highly active defense techniques of Red-wattled Lapwings have helped these birds to adapt to the
growing anthropogenic pressure and there is no immediate threat to the
population of Red-wattled Lapwings in Udaipur city.
However, habitat destruction through pollution and ever-increasing human
activities can cause a decline in their population in the future. The following
measures may be helpful to conserve habitats of Red-wattled
Lapwing:
Carrying out extensive population
surveys of Red-wattled Lapwings.
Satellite monitoring of birds’
habitats to keep track of factors that may be a threat to their survival.
A strict ban should be imposed on
the discharge of untreated industrial effluents, sewage, microplastics, medical
waste, and garbage in wetlands.
The use of motor boats that cause
oil spillage must be prohibited.
Restricting vehicles and night
tourism around lakes and protected areas.
Table 1. Population status of Vanellus indicus during study periods
2019–2020 and 2020–2021 from all study sites of Udaipur City.
|
|
Sites |
2019–2020 |
2020–2021 |
||||||||||||||||||||
|
Sep 19 |
Oct 19 |
Nov 19 |
Dec 19 |
Jan 20 |
Feb 20 |
Mar 20 |
Jun 20 |
Jul 20 |
Aug 20 |
Mean ± SD |
Oct 20 |
Nov 20 |
Dec 20 |
Jan 21 |
Feb 21 |
Mar 21 |
Jun 21 |
Jul 21 |
Aug 21 |
Sep 21 |
Mean ± SD |
||
|
1. |
Fateh Sagar |
33 |
31 |
24 |
23 |
22 |
24 |
58 |
60 |
68 |
72 |
41.5 ± 20.45 |
43 |
31 |
28 |
29 |
32 |
52 |
66 |
74 |
68 |
56 |
61.7 ± 14.22 |
|
2. |
Rang Sagar |
2 |
0 |
2 |
2 |
0 |
2 |
6 |
6 |
8 |
4 |
3.2 ± 2.70 |
3 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
2 |
4 |
4 |
8 |
6 |
4 |
3.6 ± 2.50 |
|
3. |
Pichola Lake |
32 |
22 |
21 |
19 |
20 |
22 |
48 |
57 |
60 |
64 |
36.5 ± 18.62 |
30 |
22 |
21 |
23 |
23 |
36 |
48 |
50 |
54 |
39 |
37.9 ± 16.32 |
|
4. |
Ayad River |
18 |
16 |
18 |
17 |
15 |
18 |
28 |
42 |
48 |
52 |
27.2 ± 14.53 |
22 |
19 |
18 |
18 |
17 |
24 |
32 |
48 |
46 |
24 |
26.8 ± 11.52 |
|
5. |
Goverdhan Sagar Lake |
21 |
12 |
12 |
10 |
10 |
12 |
22 |
28 |
34 |
38 |
19.9 ± 10.44 |
14 |
8 |
8 |
7 |
8 |
12 |
18 |
26 |
31 |
16 |
15.4 ± 8.53 |
|
6. |
RCA Campus |
10 |
10 |
12 |
12 |
10 |
11 |
30 |
27 |
32 |
28 |
18.2 ± 9.92 |
8 |
10 |
8 |
8 |
10 |
14 |
19 |
24 |
20 |
14 |
13.5 ± 5.76 |
|
7. |
MLSU Campus |
21 |
24 |
22 |
20 |
22 |
20 |
47 |
43 |
48 |
56 |
32.3 ± 14.34 |
23 |
22 |
20 |
20 |
20 |
28 |
42 |
46 |
44 |
26 |
30.1 ± 11.28 |
|
8. |
Sajjangarh Park |
15 |
16 |
16 |
14 |
14 |
16 |
39 |
52 |
58 |
46 |
28.6 ± 17.98 |
17 |
14 |
16 |
15 |
16 |
30 |
37 |
32 |
34 |
25 |
23.9 ± 9.10 |
|
9. |
Sukhadia Memorial Park |
6 |
3 |
4 |
4 |
3 |
3 |
5 |
8 |
6 |
8 |
5 ± 1.94 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
2 |
4 |
6 |
4 |
6 |
5 |
3 ± 2.31 |
|
10. |
Gulab Bagh |
14 |
10 |
8 |
9 |
8 |
8 |
12 |
22 |
26 |
28 |
14.5 ± 7.85 |
16 |
12 |
12 |
8 |
10 |
16 |
22 |
30 |
38 |
27 |
19.1 ± 9.85 |
Table 2. Population distribution of Vanellus indicus across different habitats of
Udaipur City in various seasons during 2019–2021.
|
|
Habitats |
Winter Season |
Summer Season |
Monsoon Season |
Total |
||||
|
2019–2020 |
2020–2021 |
2019–2020 |
2020–2021 |
2019–2020 |
2020–2021 |
2019–2020 |
2020–2021 |
||
|
1. |
Crop fields |
14 |
12 |
22 |
14 |
36 |
30 |
72 |
56 |
|
2. |
Grasslands |
12 |
8 |
18 |
15 |
32 |
28 |
62 |
51 |
|
3. |
Wetlands |
36 |
39 |
62 |
70 |
45 |
48 |
143 |
157 |
|
4. |
Urban Parks (Gardens) |
10 |
8 |
15 |
12 |
26 |
24 |
51 |
44 |
|
5. |
Protected Areas (Scrub Forests
and shrubland) |
14 |
11 |
20 |
17 |
32 |
26 |
66 |
54 |
|
6. |
Institutional Green Spaces |
12 |
11 |
16 |
14 |
30 |
27 |
58 |
52 |
|
7. |
Constructed buildings, roads,
footpaths, etc. |
7 |
10 |
9 |
13 |
14 |
16 |
30 |
39 |
|
Total individuals in different
seasons |
105 |
99 |
162 |
155 |
215 |
199 |
482 |
453 |
|
Table 3. Activities of Red-wattled
Lapwings during different months in the periods 2019–2020 and 2020–2021.
|
|
Activity |
Relative Percentage of
Activities (2019-2020) |
Relative Percentage of
Activities (2020-2021) |
||||||||||||||||||
|
Sep 19 |
Oct 19 |
Nov 19 |
Dec 19 |
Jan 20 |
Feb 20 |
Mar 20 |
Apr 20 |
Aug 20 |
Mean ± SD |
Oct 20 |
Nov 20 |
Dec 20 |
Jan 21 |
Feb 21 |
Jun 21 |
Jul 21 |
Aug 21 |
Sep 21 |
Mean ± SD |
||
|
1 |
Locomotion |
18.19 |
21.68 |
22.08 |
22.01 |
23.21 |
21.72 |
17.64 |
16.82 |
16.74 |
20.01 ± 2.59 |
21.13 |
22.78 |
22.11 |
23.27 |
21.12 |
15.01 |
16.54 |
16.65 |
16.98 |
19.51 ± 3.17 |
|
2 |
Foraging |
12.86 |
15.12 |
15.19 |
15.08 |
15.23 |
15.7 |
10.93 |
12.97 |
12.82 |
13.99 ± 1.64 |
15.07 |
15.29 |
15.38 |
15.98 |
15.11 |
12.06 |
11.91 |
10.94 |
11.77 |
13.72 ± 1.98 |
|
3 |
Vigilance |
32.28 |
31.03 |
30.45 |
30.23 |
29.08 |
30.8 |
40.87 |
41.05 |
40.24 |
34.00 ± 5.11 |
30.83 |
30.96 |
29.5 |
30.32 |
30.98 |
42.07 |
40.44 |
41.95 |
40.89 |
35.33 ± 5.74 |
|
4 |
Maintenance |
15.84 |
15.28 |
15.81 |
15.88 |
16.32 |
15.43 |
13.24 |
12.06 |
12.12 |
14.66 ± 1.70 |
16.12 |
15.68 |
16.18 |
15.48 |
15.29 |
13.08 |
12.96 |
12.95 |
12.56 |
14.48 ± 1.54 |
|
5 |
Defense |
1.17 |
1.19 |
1.08 |
1.26 |
0.98 |
1.14 |
1.98 |
2.04 |
1.27 |
1.34 ± 0.39 |
1.16 |
1.17 |
1.21 |
1.15 |
0.99 |
2.01 |
2.06 |
1.9 |
1.48 |
1.46 ± 0.42 |
|
6 |
Vocalization |
2.38 |
1.95 |
2.05 |
1.99 |
1.66 |
1.72 |
2.6 |
2.66 |
2.42 |
2.16 ± 0.37 |
1.92 |
2.12 |
1.96 |
1.79 |
1.71 |
2.75 |
2.85 |
2.93 |
2.08 |
2.23 ± 0.48 |
|
7 |
Social interactions |
0.73 |
0.63 |
0.67 |
0.68 |
0.7 |
0.82 |
0.72 |
0.66 |
0.74 |
0.70 ± 0.05 |
0.69 |
0.68 |
0.65 |
0.72 |
0.68 |
0.69 |
0.67 |
0.7 |
0.71 |
0.69 ± 0.02 |
|
8 |
Inactivity |
11.67 |
9.68 |
10.02 |
9.78 |
10.06 |
10.72 |
8.88 |
8.62 |
10.33 |
9.97 ± 0.92 |
9.82 |
9.27 |
9.87 |
9.23 |
10.91 |
9.23 |
9.38 |
9.14 |
11.19 |
9.78 ± 0.77 |
|
9 |
Miscellaneous |
4.88 |
3.44 |
2.65 |
3.17 |
2.76 |
3.67 |
3.14 |
3.12 |
3.32 |
3.35 ± 0.65 |
3.26 |
2.05 |
3.14 |
3.06 |
3.21 |
3.1 |
3.19 |
2.84 |
2.34 |
2.91 ± 0.43 |
Table 4. Percentage of activities of
Red-wattled Lapwings at a different period of the day
during the breeding and non-breeding seasons.
|
|
Activity |
Period of day (hours) during
Breeding Season |
Total Percentage |
Period of day (hours) during Non-Breeding
Season |
Total Percentage |
||||||||||
|
0701–0800 |
0801–0900 |
0901–1000 |
1201–1300 |
1601–1700 |
1701–1800 |
0701–0800 |
0801-0900 |
0901-1000 |
1201-1300 |
1601-1700 |
1701-1800 |
||||
|
1 |
Locomotion |
3.52 |
3.69 |
3.21 |
2.04 |
2.23 |
2.2 |
16.89 |
3.56 |
3.8 |
3.95 |
3.12 |
3.74 |
3.04 |
21.21 |
|
2 |
Foraging |
2.06 |
2.62 |
2.29 |
1.46 |
2.16 |
1.63 |
12.22 |
2.16 |
3.24 |
3.47 |
2.1 |
2.98 |
2.12 |
16.17 |
|
3 |
Vigilance |
6.72 |
7.14 |
7.03 |
6.38 |
6.93 |
6.11 |
40.31 |
4.93 |
5.52 |
5.68 |
4.44 |
5.57 |
4.52 |
30.66 |
|
4 |
Maintenance |
1.37 |
2.64 |
2.66 |
2.76 |
1.78 |
1.52 |
12.73 |
2.38 |
2.68 |
2.78 |
2.42 |
2.56 |
2.37 |
15.19 |
|
5 |
Defense |
0.37 |
0.39 |
0.36 |
0.32 |
0.35 |
0.28 |
2.07 |
0.2 |
0.22 |
0.25 |
0.24 |
0.21 |
0.24 |
1.36 |
|
6 |
Vocalization |
0.38 |
0.37 |
0.35 |
0.29 |
0.36 |
0.39 |
2.14 |
0.33 |
0.35 |
0.34 |
0.31 |
0.32 |
0.29 |
1.94 |
|
7 |
Social interactions |
0.09 |
0.11 |
0.23 |
0.17 |
0.1 |
0.08 |
0.78 |
0.08 |
0.14 |
0.17 |
0.15 |
0.11 |
0.06 |
0.71 |
|
8 |
Inactivity |
1.62 |
1.42 |
1.39 |
1.73 |
1.67 |
1.89 |
9.72 |
1.69 |
1.49 |
1.45 |
1.72 |
1.64 |
2.03 |
10.02 |
|
9 |
Miscellaneous |
0.5 |
0.57 |
0.59 |
0.48 |
0.56 |
0.46 |
3.14 |
0.46 |
0.48 |
0.49 |
0.44 |
0.45 |
0.42 |
2.74 |
For
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Appendix I. GPS coordinates of
major study sites.
|
|
Main Sites/Locations |
Habitats |
GPS Coordinates |
|
1. |
Fateh Sagar |
Wetland, crop-fields,
grasslands and constructed buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.601°N, 73.674°E |
|
2. |
Rang Sagar
|
Wetland and constructed
buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.584°N, 73.679° E |
|
3. |
Pichola Lake |
Wetland and constructed
buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.572°N, 73.678°E |
|
4. |
Ayad River |
Wetland, crop-fields,
grasslands and constructed buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.606°N, 73.696°E |
|
5. |
Goverdhan Sagar |
Wetland, grasslands and
constructed buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.543°N, 73.683°E |
|
6. |
RCA Campus |
Crop-fields and institutional
green spaces |
24.580°N, 73.702°E |
|
7. |
MLSU Campus |
Institutional green spaces,
crop-fields, grasslands and constructed buildings, roads and footpaths |
24.594°N, 73.731°E |
|
8. |
Sajjangarh Biological Park |
Protected areas and grasslands |
24.591°N, 73.652°E |
|
9. |
Sukhadia Memorial Park |
Urban Park |
24.585°N, 73.709°E |
|
10. |
Gulab Bagh |
Protected areas and urban park |
24.572°N, 73.692°E |