An inventory of
mammals, birds and reptiles along a section of the river and banks of upper
Ganges, India
Tawqir Bashir 1, SandeepKumar Behera 2, AfifullahKhan 3 & Parikshit Gautam4
1 Senior
Research Fellow, Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248001, India
2 Associate
Director, River Basins and Biodiversity, 4 Director, Freshwater and
Wetland Division, WWF-India, 172 Lodhi Estate, New
Delhi, India
3 Professor,
Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar
Pradesh 202002, India
Email: 1 tbashir@wii.gov.in (corresponding author), 2 sbehera@wwfindia.net,3 afifkhan@rediffmail.com, 4 pgautam@wwfindia.net
Date of publication (online): 26 August 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 August 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Rahul Kaul
Manuscript details:
Ms #
o2692
Received 02 February 2011
Final received 08 July 2012
Finally accepted 30 July 2012
Citation: Bashir, T., S.K. Behera,
A. Khan & P. Gautam (2012). An
inventory of mammals, birds and reptiles along a section of the river and banks
of upper Ganges, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa4(9): 2900–2910.
Copyright: © TawqirBashir, Sandeep Kumar Behera,Afifullah Khan & Parikshit Gautam 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UnportedLicense. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this
article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: We thank the Department of
Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing the
logistic sup-port and facilities necessary for conducting the recent surveys.
We are grateful to WWF-India for providing the financial support and their
information gathered through previous surveys. We express our gratitude to the
Department of Environment and Forests (Narora, Brijghat & Bijnor) for their
official help and support. Last but not the least, we thank our field
assistants for their help.
Abstract:A study was conducted to assess faunal diversity along a 165-km
stretch of the upper Ganges River between Bijnor and Narora cities, Uttar Pradesh, from January to June
2007. Both river and bank species
diversity of reptiles, birds and mammals using a combination of boat surveys,
linear walks and random searches were inventoried. Presence of 18 species of mammals, 55
species of birds and 13 species of reptiles were recorded from the river
stretch including 16 species of global conservation significance. Maximum
encounter rate was observed for little cormorant (3.160±0.290), macaque (2.385±0.442)
and brown roofed turtle (1.009±0.107). Our study is an attempt towards
generating baseline information on the faunal diversity of the upper Ganges and
we recommend exhaustive surveys and regular monitoring of this river stretch
through indicator species approach.
Keywords:Conservation, encounter rate, faunal diversity, Ganges, monitoring.
For
figures, images, tables -- click here
Aquatic
ecosystems are critical components of our environment. In addition to being essential
contributors to biodiversity and ecological productivity, they also provide a
variety of services to human populations (Poff et al.
2002). Rivers, lakes,
wetlands and estuaries constituting the freshwater ecosystem alone support
about 6% of the described world species (Hawksworth& Kalin-Arroyo 1995) and provide habitats
consisting of benthic, aquatic, and terrestrial components (FISRWG 2001). Freshwater biodiversity constitutes a
valuable natural resource, in economic, cultural, aesthetic, scientific and
educational terms (Dudgeon et al. 2006). However, there is an increasing concern worldwide on the loss of aquatic
ecosystems and their associated biodiversity (Georges & Cottingham2002; Saunders et al. 2002; Cullen 2003), particularly for riverine landscapes
(Dunn 2004). Rivers and associated
freshwater habitats are among the most threatened ecosystems of the world (Revenga et al. 2005; WWF 2006) due to a wide range of
intensive human use and developmental activities. In addition, declines in biodiversity
are far greater in fresh waters than in the most affected terrestrial ecosystems
(Sala et al. 2000), because inspiteof facing varied threats and large scaleexploitations, the freshwater hotspots generally receive less management
attention than their terrestrial counterparts (Myers et al. 2000). Moreover, knowledge of the diversity of
fresh waters is woefully incomplete and the data are insufficient to accurately
estimate rates of freshwater biodiversity loss in many regions (Dudgeon et al.
2006).
River
Ganges regarded as one of the largest rivers coursing through 2,510km from
northern to eastern India and acting as a lifeline to the vast Indian plains is
well recognised for its enormous cultural and
economic significance (Adel 2001). It supports about 8% of the world’s population living in its catchments
(Newby 1998) and is also a centre of social and
religious tradition. Above all, the
river is home to a wide variety of life forms ranging from primitive phytoplanktons to highly evolved species such as dolphins,
thus signifying its biological and ecological importance. Information on species diversity, abund-ance and habitat characteristics arekey baseline parameters for conservation planning; unfortunately such
information is lacking for many river segments of the Ganges.
A
stretch of upper Ganges between Rishikesh and Kanpur
functions as an ecologically important section because of its hydrological
characteristics (Behera 1995). But, due to high regulation of dams,
barrages and associated irrigation canals, infrastructure development, water
abstraction and pollution, present-day flow of the upper Ganga Basin has
decreased by about 2–8 % and such a reduced flow regime also impacts
downstream water availability, water quality and riverine ecosystems (Salemme 2007; Behera et al. 2008;Bharati et al. 2011). Within this, a stretch of 165km from Bijnor to Narora has been
reported to be rich in biodiversity and the only promising habitat for the
elusive species such as, Ganges River Dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica,
Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillataand Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris in the upper Ganges (Behera1995; Behera & Rao1999; Behera 2002; Bashir et al. 2010a). There is a knowledge gap regarding the
faunal assemblage of this stretch and whatever information is available, is in
the form of casual records and sightings reported in least accessible
formats. With this background, we
conducted brief surveys in the stretch in an attempt towards assessing relative
abundance and habitat occurrence of species (mammals, birds and reptiles) in
the study stretch and along its banks.
Material and Methods
The
study was conducted in a 165-km stretch of upper Ganges, between Bijnor (29022’12.6”N
& 78002’ 07.8”E) and Narora (28011’28.4”N
& 78023’48.1”E) barrages in western Uttar Pradesh, India (Fig.
1), between January and June, 2007. The entire study area had an average width of 200m and was generally
shallow with only intermittent small stretches of deep waterpools. The banks are either sandy
or muddy characterized by forest, shrub and grasses.
Surveys
were conducted on a motor boat powered by a 15-hp
engine at a constant speed of 6km/h. Surveys were done between 0600 to 1800 h whichalso included frequent halts at the banks generally after every 5km on both
sides of the river depending on their accessibility. Banks were surveyed up to 1km away from
the river course through linear walks (1 to 1.5 km) along the river, and random
searches for wildlife sightings, signs and evidences by a team of five
observers (one researcher and four trained field assistants). Further information regarding the
presence of various mammal and reptile species was gathered through informal
conversations with farmers, fishermen and other people living along the
banks. In addition, during boat
surveys opportunistic animal sightings on adjacent banks were also
recorded. Field recordings were
done with naked eye and using 50×10 binoculars (generally for birds)
followed by comparison with field guides (Prater 1971; Ali & Ripley 1987; Grimmett et al. 2001; Das 2002; Menon2003; Whitaker & Captain 2004). Photographs were also taken wherever possible as supporting evidence and
later compared with field guides and discussed with species experts for proper
identification. We separately
calculated encounter rates (number/km) of species recorded during boat surveys
and during bank searches and also generated information on their habitat
occurrence (river course, islands [small temporary landmasses created in the
stretch due to variation in water flow speeds along the banks], riverbeds, bank
cliffs, marshlands, agricultural fields and dense forests along banks) based on
records and local information. Each
survey of the entire stretch along with the bank surveys took about 12–15
days. A total of four boat surveys
(two upstream & two downstream) with an effort of 660 and 116 km of bank
searches were done.
Methodological considerations
Biodiversity
surveys in general are limited by a number of factors. Wetlands being dynamic
systems species occurrence and detection are constrained by season and time of
the day due to variation in activity levels and behaviouramong species (Shields 1977; Rollfinke & Yahner 1990). Consequently, a combination of boat surveys and ground based bank
searches were conducted for estimating relative abundances in terms of
encounter rates (separate for each method) as these could act as a useful
monitoring tool for rapid assessment for a range of species (Anonymous 1998; Kiszka et al. 2004).
We
conducted linear surveys along a river stretch, covering 15–20 km and
sampling 3–4 segments on each day. Two upstream and two downstream surveys (each survey 165km) were done in
this way. Consequently, segments
were exposed to sampling over a mixture of daily time periods. Thereafter, we pooled sightings and
signs during each complete survey and reported encounter rates of species for
the entire river stretch. Similar,
technique was used to calculate encounter rates of species recorded during bank
searches for a total search/walking effort of 116km. Our survey method is the most feasible
monitoring technique used for wildlife inventories along river stretches and
wetlands (Anonymous 1998; Carletti et al. 2004). We invoke that care should be
administered in comparing these results with future studies and comparisons
should be made only with studies involving similar survey protocols.
Results
Faunal diversity
We
recorded the presence of 18 species of mammals (Table 1), 55 species of birds
(Table 2) and 13 species of reptiles (Table 3) from the study stretch (aquatic
& terrestrial) including one Critically Endangered, four Endangered, six
Vulnerable and five Near Threatened species (IUCN 2010) (Images
1–3). While surveying the
banks we also encountered antlers of Swamp Deer Rucervus duvaucelii (Image 1b) and scats of a wild felid
species probably that of Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus (Image 1e). Among mammals the maximum encounter rate
(individuals/km ± Standard Error) was observed for macaque (2.385±0.442)
followed by Jackal (0.478±0.153) and Ganges River Dolphin (0.24±0.061), while
minimum was for the Fishing Cat (0.025±0.012 [signs/km]). In case of birds maximum encounter rate
was for Little Cormorant (3.160±0.290) and minimum for Indian White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis(0.005±0.003). While among reptiles
maximum encounter rate was observed for Brown Roofed Turtle (1.009±0.107) and minimum for Indian Cobra (0.011±0.011),
respectively. The information on
the habitat occurrence of mammal species depicted that more than 50% of species
occurred in agricultural fields, dense forests along banks as well as in
marshlands while just 12% occurred in river course, islands and river beds. In
case of birds more than 60% species were encountered in marshlands and islands,
and more than 30% in agricultural fields, river beds,
in dense forests along banks as well as in river courses, while only 14% were
encountered in bank cliffs. In
addition, more that 50% of the reptile species were encountered in river beds,
agricultural fields, marshlands and dense forests along banks, while more than
30% in islands and river courses and only 15% in bank cliffs. Interestingly,
more than 80% of the snake species were encountered in agricultural fields.
Besides
this, we encountered carcasses of Indian Monitor Lizard Varanus benghalensis with fatal wounds (Image 1a) and
Swamp Deer with cut antlers (Image 1c). We also found entangled Peacock Soft Shell Turtle Nilssonia hurum (Image 3b) in one of the permanently laid
fishing nets, recovered antlers of Swamp Deer and Hog Deer Heylaphus porcinus (Image 1d) and rescued a live specimen
of Indian Roofed Turtle from local farmers, who superstitiously believed the
turtle carapace as a sign of protection to their cattle. During our visits to the local fish
market (mandi) we also got evidences of illegal
fishing (catches <250g).
Discussion
The
high species richness of the river stretch including species of global
significance validates the ecological importance of the area and also merits a
need for its conservation and management. Comparisons with earlier reports indicate that our surveys yielded fewer
species of birds in contrast to 86 species (Table 2) reported by Behera (1995), but more mammals compared to Behera (1995, 2002) including Hog Deer, Swamp Deer, Fishing
Cat and Small Indian Civet as new additions (Table 1). We recorded similar number of reptile
species in our surveys in comparison with earlier reports of 14 species (12
turtles and two crocodiles) by Behera (2002), but
with nine species as new additions (Table 3). The probable reasons for fewer bird
species encountered may be attributed to seasonal migration in some species
which requires a year round sampling effort or cryptic nature of certain
species which needs intensive and repetitive surveys for detection, which could
not be addressed in this study. The
encounter rate for Ganges River Dolphin in the entire stretch was similar to the
estimate (0.23) in the Lohit River, eastern Assam (Wakid 2005) but lower than our estimate (0.52±0.068) for a
small stretch of 28km between Narora and Anupshahar (Bashir et al. 2010b), 0.44 in the Brahmaputra
River, Assam (Mohan et al. 1997) and 1.8 in Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Choudharyet al. 2006). Our results also
confirm Brown Roofed Turtle as most abundant turtle species in the stretch as
reported earlier (Behera 1995; 2002), signifying it
as a potential habitat in the upper Ganges for dolphin and turtle conservation
(Behera 1995; Behera & Rao 1999; Behera 2002). Occurrence of a major proportion of
water birds is also an indicator of good habitat quality. Majority of mammal, bird and reptile
species occurrences in agricultural fields, forest patches along banks and in
marshlands symbolises that not only the river stretch
but its banks are equally rich in biodiversity representing a rich riverine
ecosystem, but with few concerns; since agricultural activities are continuing
to increase along the banks (Bashir et al. 2010a) and additionally some threats
to riverine biodiversity were identified at local level in this study. Increasing agricultural activities and
percentage of cultivated land of riparian wetlands have been suggested to affect
bird communities by decreasing species diversity (Mensinget al. 1998). Despite survey
constraints, there is a regular need to assess the level of biodiversity and
health of this river stretch. An
indicator species approach can be a useful assessment tool in this regard
(Anonymous 2008). In a multi-organisimal study of a dynamic ecosystem (wetlands), water
birds have been suggested as excellent environmental indicators as their populations arenot only extremely dynamic and sensitive to change but more often reflect land
use conditions than other groups (Galatowitsch et al.
1999; Anonymous 2008). Hence,
future studies should be conducted with this approach along with awareness
programs at local levels.
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