Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2022 | 14(7): 21368–21387
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7682.14.7.21368-21387
#7682 | Received 28 September 2021 | Final
received 03 July 2022 | Finally accepted 09 July 2022
First record of Proceratium
Roger, 1863, Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918, and Vollenhovia Mayr,
1865 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from the Western Ghats of peninsular India,
description of three new species, and implications for Indian biogeography
Kalesh Sadasivan 1 &
Manoj Kripakaran 2
1 Travancore Nature History Society
Ant Research Group (TARG), Jyothis, Mathrubhumi Road, Vanchiyoor post,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695035, India.
1,2 Greeshmam, BN439, Bapuji Nagar, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala 695011, India.
2 Somavilasom, Njandoorkonam,
Powdikonam PO, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695587, India.
1 kaleshs2002in@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 manojvbm1@yahoo.com
Abstract: Three new ant species from the
genera Proceratium Roger, 1863, Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918, and Vollenhovia
Mayr, 1865 are described from the Western Ghats of southern India. This is the
first report of Proceratium and Zasphinctus from peninsular India
and the first record of Vollenhovia from the Western Ghats mountain
range proper. Proceratium gibbosum sp. nov. is described from
Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala, being the first record of the stictum species
group from the Indian subcontinent; it differs from other members of the stictum
group by the mesonotum bearing a prominent rounded dorsal hump (tumulus)
and petiole devoid of ventral tooth. The first record of the genus Zasphinctus
Wheeler, 1918 from the Indian region is also presented here, with a
description of a new species. Zasphinctus sahyadriensis sp. nov.
differs from all known Afrotropical and Asian Zasphinctus by a
combination of characters including clypeal area with single median tooth,
occipital margin being regular in outline, and head sculpture sparsely
punctate. The occurrence of the genus Vollenhovia Mayr, 1865 is
confirmed from peninsular India, with the description of the female castes of Vollenhovia
keralensis sp. nov. We provide ecological notes on these new taxa. In
addition, separate identification keys based on the worker caste are also
presented to Indo-Malayan species of Proceratium,
Afrotropical-Indomalayan species of Zasphinctus, and Vollenhovia
of the Indian subcontinent. The biogeographical implications of the presence of
these three genera are also discussed in relation to plate tectonics of the
Indian subcontinent.
Keywords: Agasthyamalais, ant taxonomy,
Cretaceous, Dorylinae, Gondwana, Kerala, Myrmicinae, Paleogene,
Proceratiinae, Tectonics.
Abbreviations: DSLR—Digital SLR | NCBS—National
Centre for Biological Sciences | SEM—Scanning electron microscope | TARG—TNHS
Ant Research Group | TNHS—Travancore Nature History Society | ZSI—Zoological
Survey of India.
ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:86CBB841-6E70-4863-A06F-15D18157702B
Editor: Brian Fisher, California Academy
of Sciences, San Francisco, USA. Date of publication: 26
July 2022 (online & print)
Citation: Sadasivan, K. & M.
Kripakaran (2022). First record of Proceratium
Roger, 1863, Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918, and Vollenhovia Mayr,
1865 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from the Western Ghats of peninsular India,
description of three new species, and implications for Indian biogeography. Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(7): 21368–21387. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7682.14.7.21368-21387
Copyright: © Sadasivan & Kripakaran 2022. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing
interests.
Author details: Kalesh Sadasivan—Founder member and Research
Associate of Travancore Nature History Society (TNHS), an NGO based in
Trivandrum established in 2010. A wildlife photographer and an amateur
taxonomist with specific interest in invertebrates–butterflies, odonates,
cicadas and ants. Manoj Kripakaran—Research
Associate of Travancore Nature History Society (TNHS). A macro photographer and
an amateur taxonomist with specific interest in birds and ants of Western
Ghats.
Author contributions: KS and MK together did the
field-work and photography. KS wrote the manuscript and MK gave his
suggestions.
Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Kerala Forest
and Wildlife Department for collection permits (WL-10-1259/2015) and research
support. The logistical support and field help from officer and staff of
Periyar Tiger Reserve and Palode Forest Range, Thiruvananthapuram is gratefully
acknowledged. We are grateful to Late Prof. Musthak Ali who helped us in the
various stages of preparation of this paper. We would like to thank Prathapan
K.D., Ullassa K., and Freerk M. for the lab facilities and comments. We
acknowledge help with imaging the species from Satya Krishna Prakash, Kiran
M.R., Manoj Komath, Nishad K.V., Dipendra N.B., Shamim M.K., and Yeshwanth H.M.
We thank Jayakumar K., Baiju K., Vinay Krishnan, Raghuram, Sandeep Das, Anzil
S., Ajith Kumar, Kiran M.R., and Preeti Y. from Travancore Nature History
Society Ant research group (TARG), Thiruvananthapuram for their support and
encouragements.
Introduction
The Western Ghats complex is one
of the world’s major biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000). Lying on the
western edge of the Indian peninsula, this mountain chain runs for over 1,600
km (8–210 N), with a single major break– the Palghat gap
(Subramanyam & Nayar 1974). Although the region houses exceptional
biodiversity and endemism especially for invertebrates, the speciation and
biogeographic processes are not well known (Joshi & Karanth 2013). As per
Sheela et al. (2020), there are currently 455 species of ants including 123
endemics in 75 genera in the Western Ghats. Since Bingham (1903), many new
species were reported in the region from few isolated studies, including range
extensions for some genera. But, there has not been any comprehensive work on
ants of the Western Ghats, making it a relatively less explored region (Sheela
et al. 2020). We came across three new generic records from the region—Proceratium
Roger, 1863, Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918, and Vollenhovia Mayr,
1865—in studies on ants in southern Western Ghats of the Kerala state, during
the last decade.
Ants of the genus Proceratium
are cryptic, hypogaeic (subterranean) in habits and nest in rotting wood, leaf
litter, topsoil, and below stones as far as known (Brown 1974; Urbani & De
Andrade 2003; Staab et al. 2018). The genus has a global distribution, and most
species are rarely collected due to their cryptobiotic lifestyle (Urbani &
De Andrade 2003). Currently, 86 extant and six fossil species are known (Urbani
& De Andrade 2003; Bolton 2021). The natural history of this genus remains
mostly unknown, with a few fragmentary reports based on observations of a small
number of species (Garcia et al. 2015). The genus was recorded for the first
time in India with the description of P. williamsi Tiwari, 2000, from
East Khasi Hills in Meghalaya (Mathew & Tiwari 2000). Up to this study, it
was the only known species from the country (AntWeb 2021; Bharti et al. 2016).
Zasphinctus is a genus of subterranean
doryline ants with Afrotropical, Indomalayan, and Australasian distribution.
Currently, 23 valid species of this genus have been described, with most
species found in the Australasian region. The only species recorded from
mainland Asia was Z. siamensis (Jaitrong, 2016) from Thailand, initially
described in the genus Sphinctomyrmex. Until now, no species of Zasphinctus
were reported from the Indian subcontinent (Bharti et al. 2016; Sheela et al.
2020; AntWeb 2021).
Vollenhovia are myrmicine ants belonging to
the tribe Crematogastrini Forel 1893 (Ward et al. 2015). These are small to
moderate-sized monomorphic ants (Bolton 2003) and some of them are social
parasites (Terayama & Kinomura 1997). Globally, currently 59 extant
species, 18 subspecies, and three fossil species are recognized (Bolton 2021).
The genus is distributed in Australasia, Indomalaya, Malagasy, Oceania, and
Palearctic biogeographic regions. It is found in Seychelles in the Malagasy
region, but is curiously absent from Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, and Africa
(Fisher 1996; AntWeb 2021). In 2013, V. gastropuncta Bharti & Kumar,
2013 was described from Himachal Pradesh in India thereby extending the range of
this genus to the western Himalaya. Even though the presence of the genus Vollenhovia
is reported from the adjacent Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, to
the east of Nilgiris, the taxon was undescribed (Rajan et al. 2006). Presently,
there are no confirmed records of Vollenhovia from the Western Ghats
mountain range proper (Sheela et al. 2020; AntWeb 2021).
We describe here one new species
from each of these genera. Proceratium is reported here from the
tropical evergreen forests of Periyar Tiger Reserve of Kerala, Zasphinctus from
a mixed evergreen forest of Ponmudi hills from Agasthyamalai, and Vollenhovia
from the primary evergreen and mixed forests of Periyar and Agasthyamalai.
We also provide taxonomic keys based on the worker caste of Indo-Malayan
species of Proceratium (modified from Urbani & De Andrade (2003));
Afrotropical-Indomalayan species of Zasphinctus (modified from Garcia et
al. (2017)); and Vollenhovia of the Indian subcontinent.
Methods
and Terminology
The two study locations were
Ponmudi hills in Agasthyamalai, Thiruvananthapuram District and Periyar Tiger
Reserve, Idukki District, both in the Western Ghats of Kerala State of southern
India (Image 1). Ants were collected from tray-sifted leaf litter samples and
preserved in 1.5 ml plastic vials containing absolute ethanol. Morphological
characters were studied and measurements taken with the help of a HEADZ Model
HD81 stereomicroscope. Photographs were taken with a Canon 7D Digital SLR and
MPE 65 f 2.8 1–5x Lens. Photographs of whole ants and surface sculpturing of
parts were obtained using a FEI Quanta 200 scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The holotypes were photographed with a DSLR camera and paratypes were subjected
to electron microscopy. The morphological terminology follows Garcia et al.
(2015) for Proceratium and Borowiec (2016) for Zasphinctus. They
use certain terms that are specific to these taxa in their descriptions
and identification keys. The terms in Garcia et
al. (2015) and Borowiec (2016) are adhered to facilitate
comparison to these works. Gyne morphology follows Boudinot (2015). Wilson
(1955) was followed for pubescence and pilosity. The terminology for the
description of surface sculpturing is based on Harris (1979). The term
abdominal segment III is alternately used for the postpetiole and abdominal
segment IV for the gastral segment I following Fisher (2005). Abdominal
segments 1 to 4 are denoted as AI, AII, AIII and AIV, respectively. We use the
term ‘calcar of strigil’ following Keller (2011). Measurements follow Ward
(1988) and Garcia et al. (2015, 2017). All measurements are in millimetres
unless otherwise specified. Research permissions granted to us precludes
publication of GPS points for places inside protected areas as a publication
policy, hence we are unable to provide them.
The following measurements and
indices are used:
EL—Eye length: maximum length of
eye measured in lateral view | HL—Head length: maximum measurable distance from
the mid-point of the anterior clypeal margin to the mid-point of the posterior
margin of head, measured in full-face view | HW—Head width: maximum head width
directly behind the eyes, measured in full face view | SL—Scape length: maximum
length of scape shaft excluding basal condyle | PH—Pronotal Height: the maximum
height of the pronotum in profile | PW—Pronotal Width: the maximum width of the
pronotum in dorsal view | DML—Dorsal Mesosoma Length: maximum length of
mesosomal dorsum from antero-dorsal margin of pronotum to dorsal margin of
propodeal declivity | WL—Weber’s Length of Mesosoma: the maximum diagonal
length of the mesosoma in profile, from the angle at which the pronotum meets
the cervix to the posterior basal angle of the metapleuron | HFeL—Metafemur
Length: the maximum straight-line length of the metafemur, measured in dorsal
view | HTiL—Hind tibia length: maximum length of hind tibia measured on its
external face | HBaL—Hind basitarsus length: maximum length of hind basitarsus
measured along its external face | PeL—Abdominal Segment II (petiole) Length: the
maximum length of abdominal segment II (petiole), measured in dorsal view |
PeH—Abdominal Segment II (petiole) Height: the maximum height of the petiolar
tergum in profile view, including laterotergite, excluding petiolar sternum |
PeW—Abdominal Segment II (petiole) Width: the maximum width of abdominal
segment II (petiole), measured in dorsal view | A3L—Abdominal Segment III
Length: the maximum length of abdominal segment III, measured in dorsal view |
A3W—Abdominal Segment III Width: the maximum width of abdominal segment III,
measured in dorsal view | A3H—Postpetiole Height: Maximum height of postpetiole
in profile |
A4L—Abdominal Segment IV Length:
the maximum length of abdominal segment IV, measured in dorsal view |
A4W—Abdominal Segment IV Width: the maximum width of abdominal segment IV,
measured in dorsal view | LS4—Abdominal sternum IV length: maximum length of
abdominal sternum IV in lateral view | A5L—Abdominal Segment V Length: the
maximum length of abdominal segment V, measured in dorsal view | A5W—Abdominal
Segment V Width: the maximum width of abdominal segment V, measured in dorsal
view | A6L—Abdominal Segment VI Length: the maximum length of abdominal segment
VI, measured in dorsal view | A6W—Abdominal Segment VI Width: the maximum width
of abdominal segment VI, measured in dorsal view | WL—Weber’s length: diagonal
length of mesosoma in lateral view from the anterior-most point of pronotal
slope (excluding neck) to posterov--entral margin of propodeal lamella or lobe
| TL—Total body length: combined length of HL + WL + PeL + A3L + A4L for
Proceratiinae and HL + ML + PeL + A3L + GL for Myrmicinae.
Indices
CI—Cephalic index: HW / HL × 100
| OI—Ocular index: EL / HW × 100 | SI—Scape index: SL / HL × 100 | DMI —Dorsal
Mesosoma Index: PW / WL × 100 | DMI2 —Dorsal Mesosoma Index 2: DML / WL × 100 |
LMI —Lateral Mesosoma Index: PH / WL × 100 | DPe (DPI)— Dorsal petiole index:
PeW / PeL × 100 | LPI —Lateral Petiole Index: PeL / PeH × 100 | MFI —Metafemur
Index: HFeL / HW × 100 | ASI—Abdominal segment index: A4L /A3L × 100 |
IGR—Gastral reflexion index: LS4 / A4L.
Results
Genus Proceratium Roger,
1863
Description of worker caste
stictum species group
Monomorphic hypogaeic ants of
tribe Proceratiini with petiole narrowly attached to the first gastral segment;
tergite of second gastral segment strongly arched and vaulted with remaining
segments directed anteriorly; eyes present even if small; mandible linear to
triangular with three or more teeth, not overhung by the clypeus; apical
funicular segment moderately enlarged but not strongly bulbous well-developed
(Bolton 2003). Medially excavated clypeus protruding anteriorly, vertex in
full-face view weakly concave, calcar of strigil with a basal spine, belonging
to the stictum species group as defined by Urbani & De Andrade
(2003).
Proceratium gibbosum Sadasivan & Kripakaran sp.
nov.
(Image 2A–C)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:509E90B6-CC70-4455-BC60-5530EADFAEEB
Material
Examined
Holotype:
NRC-AA-3758, 23 May 2016, Worker, Vallakadavu, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Idukki
District, Kerala State, India, at 900 m, coll. by Kalesh Sadasivan,
tray-sifting loose soil under a decaying log, in forest floor of a primary
evergreen forest, deposited in the insect collection facility of the NCBS
(National Centre for Biological Sciences), Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, GKVK, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India. Earlier, the
holotype was with number TARG-1007, mounted for morphological study and later
removed & preserved as wet specimen in absolute alcohol, deposited in the
research collections facility at the Travancore Nature History Society (TNHS),
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Measurements: EL 0.05, HW
0.80, HL 0.90, HFeL 0.75, HTiL 0.55, HBaL 0.40, A3L 0.90 A4L 0.45, LS4 0.25 PeL
0.47, PeW 0.34, SL 0.50, WL 1.09, TL 3.91, CI 89, OI 6.25, SI 55.55, DPeI
72.34, ASI 50, IGR 55.56.
Head: In
full-face view marginally longer than wide (CI 89). Vertexal margin almost
straight with only very shallow concavity. Head wider at midway distance
between the level of eyes and the lateral angle of the vertex. Clypeus narrow,
not surrounding the antennal insertions and projecting inferiorly only in the
area between the anterior margin of the frontal carinae. Anterior clypeal
margin notched medially. The frontal carinae are well-separated, running in
parallel anteriorly and then diverging posteriorly. The frontal carinae reaches
up to midway between the anterior clypeal margin and the level of the eyes
(Image 2C). Eyes simple (single ommatidium), located slightly below the
mid-length of the head in full-face view. Ocelli absent. Antennal scape
distally incrassate and not reaching the vertexal margin. Antennal scape as
long as broad, all other segments broader than long. Length of last funicular
segment equal to the sum of lengths of 7–11 funicles. Mandibles with three
denticles before the apical tooth. Palp formula 4,3.
Mesosoma: In lateral
view, slightly convex; mesonotum presenting a visible tumulus. Mesosoma
slightly longer than the sum of HL and mandible length. Both the promesonotal
suture and metanotal groove shallow and barely discernible. Propodeal margins
with a well-defined tooth, lobes expanded into a broad lamella. In dorsal view,
pronotal margin angulate, but lacking projections, tooth or spines. The
mesonotum bears on its mid-dorsal surface aspect a large tumulus (0.25 mm),
occupying almost half of the area on dorsal side of the mesonotum (Images 2B).
The propodeum has the tooth directed postero-laterally and the broad propodeal
lobes. Propodeal declivity slightly concave, almost flat. The posterolateral
aspect of metapleuron with a concavity bearing the opening of the metapleural
gland.
Petiole: In dorsal
view, slightly longer than broad (PeL 0.47, PeW 0.34). The narrowest part of
the petiole is its anterior end (peduncle). The sides of the node are diverging
to about the beginning of distal third where it is the widest and the converges
slightly towards the posterior end. The anterior margin of the peduncle is
thickly marginated. In profile view, a mid-ventral keel extends till the end of
the junction of the anterior and middle third of the length of the petiole. No
tooth or spine present ventrally (Images 2A,B).
Postpetiole:
In lateral view, postpetiole is 2.5 times the length of the petiole.
Dorsal profile broadly convex, ventrally the anterior half is slightly concave
and distal half is convex in outline (Image 2A). The sides of the tergite are
convex and the anterior end is produced as a small blunt triangular extension.
In ventral view, the sternite has a mid-carina which is rudimentary. The
anterior margin of the sternite extends as a broad triangular extension (Images
2A,B).
Gaster: Constriction
between the post petiole (abdominal segment AIII) and first gastral segment
(AIV) well defined and deep (Image 2A). Tergite of the AIII twice the length of
the post petiole (AII). The tergite of AIII double the length of tergite of
AIV. The first gastral segment recurved ventrally to almost a right angle and
its curvature is smooth and convex. The distal edge of the AIII was marginated.
Remaining gastral segments curved ventrally and telescoped inside the gaster.
Sting present, robust (0.2 mm long).
Legs: All tibiae
with pectinate spur. Calcar of strigil with a basal spine. Hind basitarsi
slightly longer than half the length of the hind tibia.
Sculpture
and Pilosity: Head, mesosoma, petiole and AIII irregularly foveolate with sparse tiny
nodules. The irregular edges of the foveolae gives a scabrous appearance to the
surface. Area of the mesonotal tumulus finely granular. AIV almost scabrous in
appearance. Legs covered in dense but shallow foveolae, giving them a reticular
appearance. Body is covered in four types of hairs:
Very short decumbent hairs on the antennal funicles;
Short sub-decumbent hairs, which are denser on the legs and the
mesonotal tumulus;
Long sub-erect hairs throughout the whole body;
Short appressed hairs on the apical antennal funicle.
Short hairs
on the mesonotal tumulus irregular, disposed with the tips pointing to the
centre of the tumulus.
Color: Live
specimens dark brown. Petiole, the mesonotal tumulus and the propodeum darker.
The pronotum, postpetiole and head slightly paler. Legs and antennae dark
orange brown. Hairs pale amber brown.
Additional
Material Examined
Paratype
workers (n = 3) (Images 3–5): NRC-AA-3759, 28 March 2021, Worker, Vallakadavu,
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Idukky District, Kerala State, India, at 930 m, coll.
Kalesh Sadasivan, tray-sifting leaflitter, in forest floor of a primary
evergreen forest, deposited in the insect collection facility of the NCBS
(National Centre for Biological Sciences), Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, GKVK, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India. Earlier,
paratype number TARG-1008, preserved in absolute alcohol and currently
deposited in the research collections facility at the TNHS, Trivandrum, Kerala.
Two other
paratype workers, same data as paratype above. One paratype (TARG-1009) and
(TARG-1010) both in absolute alcohol, to
be deposited in the insect collection of Zoological Survey of India (ZSI),
Kozhikode, Kerala.
Measurements: EL
0.05–0.06, HW 0.70–0.80, HL 0.80–0.90, HFeL 0.80–0.90, HTiL 0.50–0.60, HBaL
0.35–0.45, A3L 0.90–1.00, A4L 0.45–0.50, LS4 0.20–0.30, PeL 0.47–0.50, PeW
0.34–0.40, SL 0.50–0.70, WL 1.09–1.30, TL 3.71–4.20, CI 87.5–89, OI 6.20–7.50,
SI 55.55–77.78, DPeI 72–80, ASI 50.00, IGR 44.40-60.
Variation in
workers. No variation except subtle differences in body
measurements as given above.
Gyne: Unknown
Male: Unknown
Etymology: The
specific epithet gibbosum (from Latin ‘gibbosus’, meaning protruding or
humpbacked) is a singular neuter adjective in the nominative case and refers to
the hump-like protuberance on the mesonotum, characteristic of the species.
Ecological
Notes: This species nests in the forest floor and the colonies are probably
small. This new species can be found in wet evergreen and secondary tropical
rainforests, nesting in the interphase of soil and leaf litter or in the debris
along sheltered edges of decaying logs on floor (Image 6). Workers are solitary
foragers and move at a slow pace. They feign dead when disturbed, camouflaging
against the soil (Image 5D). In
captivity, the workers readily accepted spider eggs as food (Image 5E) and
built a nest chamber with spider silk and soil. Workers were slow in movement,
looked generally uncoordinated and were averse to light. Other species that
were found in the same microhabitat of P. gibbosum were Tyrannomyrmex
alii Sadasivan & Kripakaran, 2017, Protanilla sp., Discothyrea
sp., and Recurvidris sp. So far, this new species is restricted to the
mid-elevation tropical evergreen jungles of the Periyar Tiger Reserve, in
Kerala.
Diagnosis
and Remarks
The new
taxon is characterised by a clypeus, protruding anteriorly, surrounding the
antennal sockets and medially excavated (distinctly and broadly notched),
vertex in full-face view weakly concave; calcar of strigil with a basal spine;
hence of the stictum species group (Urbani & De Andrade 2003).
According to Staab et al. (2018), the stictum species group is
exclusively tropical with taxa in Africa, Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands of
southeastern Asia, Indochina, Australia, and Mesoamerica. There are four known
species of the stictum species group from the oriental region. The
species P. deelemani Perrault, 1981 is distributed in Borneo, Brunei
Darussalam, Malaysia (Sabah & Sarawak), Thailand, and Singapore; P.
foveolatum Baroni Urbani and de Andrade, 2003 is reported from Borneo,
Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia; P. stictum Brown, 1958 is
found in Queensland, Australia; and, P. shohei Staab, Xu & Hita
Garcia, 2018 was described from a tropical forest of Yunnan Province in China.
Thus, this is the first record of a taxon of the stictum species
group for India.
Proceratium
gibbosum differs from the other members of the stictum species group by
the following character combination: mesonotum with a small rounded dorsal
hump, and petiole lacking ventral projections. Proceratium gibbosum also
presents a pedunculate petiole with its
dorsal margin convex in profile; all tibiae with pectinate spur, calcar
of strigil with a basal spine; eyes composed of a single large convex
ommatidium; propodeum unarmed but angulate, convex in profile, propodeum with a
robust spine on each side, propodeal lobes broad lamellaceous expansions; head,
mesosoma, petiole and postpetiole irregularly foveolate; first gastral tergite
convex in profile; antennal funicles wider than long; total length <4.8 mm;
propodeum with a robust spine on each side, the propodeal lobes with broad
lamellaceous expansions.
The other
Proceratium species from India are Proceratium bhutanense de
Andrade, 2003, described from Phuntsholing in Bhutan, Darjeeling in West
Bengal, Kumaon in Uttar Pradesh (Uttarakhand), and Khasi Hills in Meghalaya
(Urbani & De Andrade 2003). Bharti and Wachkoo (2014) found P.
bhutanense to be conspecific with P. williamsi Tiwari, 2000
and hence is now treated as the junior synonym of the latter. The species P.
williamsi belongs to the itoi species group with the fourth
abdominal segment sternite protruding over the third abdominal sternite (Urbani
& De Andrade 2003).
According to
the identification key from Urbani & De Andrade (2003), the
closest known species in the stictum species group seems to be P.
deelemani. However, P. deelemani lacks the distinct small
rounded dorsal hump present on the new species. In addition, the petiole of the
new species lacks any ventral projections, while in P. deelemani it has
a distinct ventral tooth. To P. stictum, the new species differs in the
cephalic sculpture, deeply impressed on P. gibbosum and shallow on the
former. Additionally, the frontal carinae of the new species
diverge posteriorly, where in P. stictum they are not as divergent. Anteriorly,
the frontal carinae are closer to each other in P. gibbosum, while they
are farther away in P. deelemani. The frontal carinae run to a level
almost midway between the anterior clypeal margin and the level of the eyes,
but they extend only one third the same distance in P. deelemani (the
frontal carinae are shorter in P. deelemani). The species is
differentiated from P. foveolatum by the first gastral tergite
being angulate on dorsum, while it is round on the curvature in P. gibbosum.
The new species is diagnosed from P. shohei by the head being widest
midway between the eyes and vertex, while the head is widest at the level of
eyes in P. shohei. The petiolar node is relatively compressed
dorsoventrally in P. shohei, while P. gibbosum has a pedunculate
petiole, convex in profile.
Modified part of the key to
Indo-Malayan species of Proceratium Roger, 1863 based on the worker
caste, from Urbani & De Andrade (2003) with placement of the known species
from India.
1) Petiole with peduncle, convex or subconvex in
profile; anterior clypeal border strongly protruding anteriorly or at least
medially triangular …………………….....................…..……….. 2
- Petiole without peduncle, rectangular in
profile; anterior clypeal border straight or weakly concave, never protruding
anteriorly .................................. (Continued to couplet number ‘6’
in Baroni Urbani & De Andrade 2003)
2) Propodeal angle with a developed spine;
propodeal lobes with a broad lamellaceous tooth ...3
- Propodeal angle at most with a small tip,
without a true spine; propodeal lobes without broad lamellaceous tooth, at most
with a lamella over the whole declivitous face …………………………….… 5
3) First gastral tergite angulate on the dorsum
(Malaysia).......P. foveolatum De Andrade, 2003
- First
gastral tergite round on the dorsal curvature ……………………...........................……....
4
4) Mesonotum
without any dorsal tumulus; petiole with a mid-ventral tooth (Borneo, Brunei,
Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore) ......................... P. deelemani
Perrault, 1981
- Mesonotum
with a rounded dorsal tumulus; petiole lacking ventral projections (Western
Ghats, India) ................... P. gibbosum sp. nov.
5) Frontal
carinae fused; clypeus strongly protruding anteriorly; mesosoma, petiole,
postpetiole and gaster foveolate (Malaysia) ................ P. microsculptum
De Andrade, 2003
- Frontal carinae not touching each other;
clypeus reduced, a triangular tooth like projection between the antennal
sockets; mesosoma, petiole and postpetiole granulate, gaster punctat ..........
6
6) Body
without long erect hairs; lateral propodeal margin at most with a narrow
lamella; hairs on mesobasitarsi shorter than 1/2 the mesobasitarsal length
(Himalayas from Uttarakhand to Meghalaya in Northeast India, Bhutan)
............. P. williamsi Tiwari, 2000
- Body with long erect hairs; lateral propodeal
margin with a broad lamella; mesobasitarsi with hairs 1/2 the mesobasitarsal
length (Malaysia) ....................... P. malesianum de Andrade, 2003
Genus Zasphinctus Wheeler,
1918
Description of Worker Caste
Antennae with 12 segments,
pygidium armed with numerous peg-like or spiniform setae, much thicker than
surrounding fine hairs; waist with abdominal segment III at least weakly
differentiated from segment IV; the latter with a constriction between its pre-
and post-sclerites; mid- and meta-tibiae with a single spur; tarsal claws of
hind legs simple; mesosoma and gaster not conspicuously dorso-laterally
marginate pore plate of metatibial gland not in a depression; in lateral view
pronoto-mesopleural suture fused, never as a curved slit in the cuticular
surface, and approaching dorsolateral margins of promesonotum; circumference of
helcium smaller relative to abdominal segment II (petiole) and placed at about
mid-height, resulting in pronounced posterior face to abdominal segment II and
conspicuous anterior face of abdominal segment III; opening of metapleural
gland conspicuous elongate and trench-like and its diameter larger than that of
the propodeal spiracle; and constrictions present at anterior end of abdominal
segments V and VI (Borowiec 2016).
Zasphinctus sahyadriensis Kripakaran & Sadasivan sp.
nov.
(Image 7A–C)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:423E5FC4-315A-44E1-9C14-C66B2D02268F
Material Examined
Holotype: NRC-AA-3760, 15 October 2015,
Worker, Ponmudi, Agasthyamalai, Thiruvananthapuram District, Kerala State,
India, at 600 m, coll. Manoj Kripakaran, collected under a small rock, in the
forest floor of a mixed evergreen forest, deposited in the insect collection
facility of the NCBS (National Centre for Biological Sciences), Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, GKVK, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065,
India. Earlier, the holotype was with number TARG-1011, mounted for study and
preserved as wet specimen in absolute alcohol, deposited in the research
collections facility at the TNHS, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala.
Measurements: HL 0.70, HW 0.40, SL 0.32, PH
0.40, PW 0.50, DML 0.90, WL 1.00, HFeL 0.42, PeL 0.32, PeH 0.23, PeW 0.50, A3L
0.35, A3W 0.43, A4L 0.30, A4W 0.58, A5L 0.30, A5W 0.59, A6L 0.30, A6W 0.60, CI
57.14, SI 45.71, DMI 50, DMI2 90, LMI 40, MFI 105, LPI 139, DPI 156, DA3I 123,
DA4I 193, DA5I 197, DA6I 200.
Head: Antennae with 12 segments and
relatively short (SI 44–56), scapes reaching half of the height of the head in
full-face view. Apical antennal segment is conspicuous, longer than two
preceding segments combined. Head distinctly longer than broad (CI 56–59).
Parafrontal ridges present and well-developed but somewhat irregular.
Torulo-posttorular complex vertical reaching only below half of the height of the
parafrontal ridges. Antennal scrobes absent. Median clypeal area with a single
short but conspicuous tooth (Image 7C). Palp formula 3,3 (visible palpomeres).
Mandibles elongate triangular and curved; masticatory margin almost plain,
basal region with inconspicuous denticles. Eyes and ocelli absent. Vertex
concave. Head capsule with a well-differentiated vertexal margin with prominent
lateral angles.
Mesosoma: Mesosoma in lateral view the
profile is almost straight (LMI 40–44). Sides are rounded and not marginate
(Images 7A).
In dorsal view, slightly more
than twice as long as broad (DMI2 88–93). Promesonotal suture completely fused.
Pronotomesopleural suture absent. Mesometapleural groove not impressed.
Transverse groove dividing mesopleuron absent. Pleural endophragmal pit
concavity present. Mesosoma dorsolaterally immarginate. Metanotal depression or
groove on mesosoma absent. Propodeal spiracle situated low below mid-height on the sclerite. Propodeal
declivity almost vertical with an angle of 110 degrees to the dorsum. Propodeal
declivity with distinct dorsolateral and lateral edge or margin, and declivity
is nearly semi-circular in posterior view. Metapleural gland without bulla
visible through the cuticle. Propodeal lobes developed.
Metasoma: Abdominal segment II (petiole)
sessile, without peduncle. Petiolar node well-developed. In profile, petiolar
tergum 1.4 times longer than high (LPI 136–139). Petiole anterodorsally
marginate but blunt, dorsolaterally well rounded, and laterally above spiracle
weakly marginate. Subpetiolar process well-developed with strongly
anteroventrally projecting “eagle beak” shaped with tip hooked posteriorly
(Image 7A) The subpetiolar process without fenestra. Prora on the
anterior aspect of the ventral part of abdominal segment III is simple and
heart shaped. Spiracle openings of abdominal segments IV–VI circular. Abdominal
segment III anterodorsally emarginate and dorsolaterally emarginate. Abdominal
segment III distinctly longer than succeeding segment IV, in both dorsal and
ventral views. Girdling constrictions of segments IV, V, VI present and
distinct. Abdominal tergite IV not folding over sternite, and anterior portions
of sternite and tergite equally well visible in lateral view. Pygidium large,
with weakly impressed and hypopygium moderately concave proximally, with the
posterior end bossed on its midline bearing the ventral part of the tiny sting.
Legs: Pro-, tibia, meso-, and
metatibiae with single pectinate spur. Tarsal claws simple. Metafemur
moderately long (MFI 105-112).
Sculpture and Pilosity: The head, mandibles, mesosoma,
legs and metasoma are generally smooth and shiny, with sparse piligerous
punctae and a much lesser number of glabrous punctae. Sculpture on ventral
margin of antennal scape, propodeal declivity and helcium imbricate to
reticular. Most of body with numerous short to moderately long, decumbent to
suberect setae. Few erect hairs present around the pygidium and hypopygium.
Pygidium near the sting and the lateral margins armed with short and stout, tubiform
to conical setae. Long semierect filiform setae present around the pygidium and
hypopygium. The area between vertexal margin and occipital margin unsculptured.
Color: Mainly black, appendages and
subpetiolar process amber brown. Mandibles dark amber brown. Hairs pale
yellowish and translucent (Image 7).
Additional
Material Examined
Paratype workers (n = 3) (Images 8,9): NRC-AA-3761, Worker with the same
collection data as holotype above. Earlier, the paratype was with number
TARG-1012, wet specimen in absolute alcohol, currently deposited in the
research collections facility at the TNHS, Trivandrum, Kerala.
Two other paratype workers both
with the same collection data as paratype above. Of them one worker
(TARG-1013), wet specimen in absolute alcohol, will be deposited in the insect
collection of ZSI, Kozhikode, Kerala and the other worker (TARG-1014), wet
specimen in absolute alcohol, will be retained as voucher specimen in
collection facility of TNHS, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Measurements: HL 0.68–0.72, HW 0.38–0.42, SL
0.31–0.32, PH 0.40–44, PW 0.49–0.54, DML 0.88–0.93, WL 0.98–1.10, HFeL
0.40–0.45, PeL 0.30–0.34, PeH 0.22–0.25, PeW 0.48–0.54, A3L 0.32–0.38, A3W
0.42–0.45, A4L 0.30–0.32, A4W 0.56–0.59, A5L 0.28–0.32, A5W 0.56–0.60, A6L
0.28–0.32, A6W 0.58–0.61, CI 55.88–58.33, SI 44.44–55.56, DMI 49–54, DMI2
88–93, LMI 40–44, MFI 105–107, LPI 136–139, DPI 156–160, DA3I 118–131, DA4I
184–193, DA5I 188–200, DA6I 191–207.
Variation in workers: No variation except in the subtle
differences in body measurements indicated above.
Gyne. Unknown
Male. Unknown
Etymology. The epithet ‘sahyadriensis’
is masculine and derived from the Sanskrit and regional Malayalam language word
‘Sahyadri’, denoting the Western Ghats.
Ecological Notes. The species was found in a
tropical evergreen forest floor. Five workers were collected from a
subterranean tunnel under a small rock, near the buttress of a tree (Image 11).
The workers were moving in the narrow tunnel which happened to get opened when
the rock was removed. The movement was army ant-like, fast, irregular, and the
ants were averse to light. In captivity, workers accepted brood of a Pheidole
species as food. The species is restricted to Ponmudi hills in Agasthyamalai
region of southern Western Ghats in Kerala state of southern India as far as is
known.
Diagnosis and Remarks
Following Borowiec (2016), the
genus Sphinctomyrmex now refers to species from the Neotropics, with the
Old World taxa now placed in Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918 and Eusphinctus
Emery, 1893. Zasphinctus is easily differentiated from Eusphinctus
by pronotomesopleural suture being present as a deep cut in the cuticle in the
latter (Image 10) (Borowiec 2016). Zasphinctus can be
distinguished from other doryline lineages with pronounced abdominal constrictions
by highly-positioned propodeal spiracles, propodeal lobes present, pygidium
large and armed with modified setae, and pronotomesopleural suture fused
(Borowiec 2016). Zasphinctus is a moderately speciose lineage of
specialized ant predators, most prominently distributed in Australia (AntWeb
2021). Workers are of variable size, color, and sculpturation, but
always possessing conspicuous girdling constrictions between abdominal segments
IV, V, and VI. The eyes are absent in most species.
This is the first confirmed
report of the occurrence of Zasphinctus for the Indian Subcontinent. The
new species seems to be a subterranean predatory in the mid-elevation of mixed
evergreen forests (600 m) of Western Ghats (Image 11). Zasphinctus
sahyadriensis is easily differentiated from the sympatric Eusphinctus
furcatus Emery, 1893, occurring in the same habitat. Although superficially
similar, Z. sahyadriensis has 12-segmented
antennae, a shallow pronotomesopleural suture, smaller size (TL 3.04–3.33), and
shiny black color, while E. furcatus has 11-segmented antennae, a deep
pronotomesopleural suture, larger size (TL 6.85–6.90 mm), and dark brown
integument coloration. Additionally, E. furcatus was recorded above 900
m, while the highest elevation for Z. sahyadriensis was 700 m.
Analysis of AntWeb (2021) images
revealed morphological similarities between Zasphinctus sahyadriensis and
other shiny black Afrotropical species (Z. sarowiwai Hita Garcia, 2017, Z.
obamai Hita Garcia, 2017, and Z. wilsoni Hita Garcia, 2017). The
presence of the conspicuous tooth in the median clypeal area distinguishes the
new species from Z. obamai and Z. wilsoni Hita Garcia. From Z.
sarowiwai, the new species is diagnosed by the irregular occipital margin
of the former. With the sole Asian species Z. siamensis, the new
taxon Z. sahyadriensis shares the median clypeal tooth and the regular
occipital margins; but the new species is easily distinguished by the black
integumental coloration (brown on Z. siamensis) and the sparsely
punctate head sculpture (densely foveolate on Z. siamensis).
Key to Afrotropical-Indomalayan
species of Zasphinctus Wheeler, 1918 based on worker caste (modified
from Hita Garcia et al. 2017).
Note: Z. rufiventris (Santschi,
1915) and Z. chariensis (Santschi, 1915) are known from males only.
1) With head in full-face view, median clypeal
area with conspicuous tooth …………………....…..….…. 2
- With head in full-face view, median clypeal
area without a conspicuous tooth …………....….…....…. 4
2) Occipital
margin regular (Image 8B)
................. 3
- Occipital margin irregular
................................................................ Z.
sarowiwai Hita Garcia, 2017
3) Sculpture of head sparsely punctate (Image 8D)
……………………..…..…........ Z. sahyadriensis sp. nov.
- Sculpture of head densely foveolate
................................................... Z. siamensis (Jaitrong,
2016)
4) With head in full-face view, parafrontal ridges
with irregularly shaped dorsal outline petiolar tergum in profile relatively
lower, 1.2 times longer than high (LPI 117–123)
.................................................. Z. obamai Hita
Garcia, 2017
- With head in full-face view, parafrontal
ridges with regularly shaped dorsal outline; petiolar tergum in profile
relatively higher, 1.1 times longer than high (LPI 112)
.................................................... Z. wilsoni Hita
Garcia, 2017
Genus Vollenhovia Mayr,
1865
Description of worker caste
Based on Bolton (2003), Eguchi et
al. (2011) and Ward et al. (2015), monomorphic myrmicine ants of tribe
Crematogastrini Forel, 1893; head in full-face view subrectangular; frontal
carina and antennal scrobe absent; median portion of clypeus raised, laterally
margined with a slight to conspicuous longitudinal carina; anteromedian portion
often forming a transverse strip; an isolated median seta absent; posteromedian
portion relatively narrowly inserted between frontal lobes; lateral portion of
clypeus never modified into a distinct ridge or wall in front of antennal
insertion; mandible triangular; masticatory margin with six or more teeth;
antennae 12-segmented, with 3-segmented club; eye present; mesosoma in lateral
view long and low; promesonotum in lateral view usually not domed; promesonotal
suture absent dorsally; metanotal groove weakly to slightly impressed dorsally;
posterodorsal portion of propodeum with rounded corners; propodeal lobe present
as low lamella; petiole nodiform; anterior peduncle short and obscure;
posterodorsal margin of petiole produced posterodorsad as a rim which is
distinctly higher than the dorsal outline of helcium of petiole; subpetiolar
process developed as a large lamella; gastral shoulder absent.
Vollenhovia keralensis Kripakaran & Sadasivan sp.
nov.
(Images 12A–C)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:3D7B8E5C-DD40-4396-83E3-30E6944DC46C
Material Examined
Holotype: NRC-AA-3762, 23 March 2011,
Worker, Bonaccord, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Trivandrum District, Kerala
State, India, at 900 m, coll. Manoj Kripakaran, from under the bark of a dead
and fallen tree in a primary evergreen forest, deposited in the insect
collection facility of the NCBS (National Centre for Biological Sciences), Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka
560065, India. Earlier, the holotype was with number TARG-1015, mounted for
study and preserved in absolute ethanol, currently deposited in the research
collections facility at the TNHS, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Measurements: HL 0.86, HW 0.81, SL 0.51, EL
0.14, Clypeal groove 0.36, DML 1.01, PW 0.52, PeL 0.31, PeW 0.23, PeH 0.30, A3L
0.30, A3W 0.27, A3H including the ventral tubercle 0.24, GL 1.14, Subpetiolar
process H 0.10, TL 3.62, CI 94.19, SI 62.96.
Head: Head length and width almost
equal, subquadrate (CI 94.19), vertexal margin with mild depression medially
(Image 12C); mandibles with eight teeth: a well-developed basal tooth,
and masticatory margin of mandibles with large apical and pre-apical teeth
followed by six teeth, gradually decreasing in size towards the base of the
mandible; anteroclypeal margin convex, with a single median tooth; antennae
12-segmented with inconspicuous three-segmented club; eyes large, placed just
below the middle of side margin of head (Images 12A). Lateral head
margin weakly convex.
Mesosoma: Pronotum slightly convex in
lateral view, mesonotum flat and sloping toward propodeal declivity,
promesonotal suture indistinct; metanotal groove distinct and impressed (Images
12A–B); propodeal dorsum convex, posterodorsal corners rounded and unarmed,
propodeal lobes developed.
Petiole: In lateral view, the dorsal
margin convex, node longer than wide, posterodorsal margin angulate;
subpetiolar process well-developed, its free lower edge rounded; on ventral
view it diverges in the middle-third and then gently slopes to merge with the
petiole at the junction of middle and distal third of the ventral margin of
petiole. Subpetiolar process lamellar wall distinctly longer than high.
Postpetiole: in lateral view, slightly longer
than high, dorsal margin convex; in dorsal view, almost spherical; in profile;
a well-developed rounded process present on its ventrum almost occupying the
anterior half.
Gaster: In profile, elliptical,
dorsoventrally flat. Sting present, small (Images 12A).
Color, Sculpture and Pilosity: Blackish-brown head and body,
gaster shiny blackish-brown. Mandible, antennae and legs brownish (Images 12A–C).
Whole body foveolate except the median polished area on the anterior part of
mesosoma, dorsolateral aspect of vertex, inferior half of propodeal declivity,
the anterior aspect and anterior half of the mid-dorsum of the petiole. Gaster
finely punctate, mostly by piligerous punctae, more abundantly on the anterior
half of the tergite and across the sternite of the first gastral segment. The
distal margin of the tergum and sternum of the first gastral segment
reticulate. Surface of the other gastral segments finely reticular on both
sides. Body is covered in sparse semierect hairs, brownish white and seen on
entire head, body and gaster including petiole and postpetiole. Hairs are
absent on the lateral aspect of the mesonotum and propodeum. Few long hairs on
the lateral margin of the clypeus, a pair of such hairs on each side much
longer and prominent. Distal aspect of gaster near the sting bears some long
erect hairs. About 15 vertical rows of piligerous foveolae between the anterior
margin of the eyes and the midline of the head in full-face view. Opening of
metapleural gland guarded by two stout filiform hairs, directed anterodorsally.
Additional Material Examined
Paratype workers (n = 3) (Images 13–15):
NRC-AA-3763, 28 March 2021, Worker, Vallakadavu, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Idukky
District, Kerala State, India, at 935 m, coll. Kalesh Sadasivan under the bark
of a dead and fallen tree in a primary evergreen forest, deposited in the
insect collection facility of the NCBS (National Centre for Biological
Sciences), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK, Bellary Road,
Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India. Earlier the paratype was with number
TARG-1016, in absolute ethanol, currently deposited in the research collections
facility at the TNHS, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Two other paratype workers both
with same data as paratype above. TARG-1017 and TARG-1018 to be deposited in
the insect collection of the ZSI, Kozhikode, Kerala.
Measurements: HL 0.84–0.86 , HW 0.79–0.81, SL
0.49–0.51, EL 0.14, Clypeal groove 0.35– 0.36, DML 1.00–1.02, PW 0.51–0.53, PeL
0.29–0.31, PeW 0.22–0.24, PeH 0.30 –0.31, A3L 0.28–0.30, A3W 0.27, A3H
including the ventral tubercle 0.23–0.25, GL 1.12– 1.016, Subpetiolar process:
H 0.08–0.12. TL 3.53–3.65, CI 94.04–94.18, SI 62.03–62.96.
Variation in workers: Some variation was noted
in the body measurements (see above) and surface sculpture. The shiny
mid-dorsal area on mesosoma was variable amongst the workers of the same
colony. The variation ranged from the polished surface extending across the
whole dorsum of mesosoma to the propodeum (Image 15A), to highly reduced
to the anterior portion of the pronotum (Image 12B).
Gyne (Images 13A,C, 15D,F)
Measurements (n = 1). HL 0.94, HW 0.90, SL
0.54, Clypeus groove: 0.53, EL 0.21, DML 1.52, PW 0.78, PeL 0.38, PeW 0.32, PeH
0.45 (including the subpetiolar process), A3L 0.46, A3W 0.38, A3H 0.32, GL
1.52, Sub-petiolar process H 0.20, TL 4.81, CI 95.74, SI 60.00.
Head blackish-brown, shaped
similar to the worker, mandible with eight teeth, antennae 12-segmented.
Antennal club not distinct from rest of the antennae. Ocelli present. Mesosoma
blackish brown, shaped as in the worker except for the wing sockets. On lateral
view, mesoscutum almost flat at the same level as the rest of the thorax.
Parapsidal lines running longitudinally extending to almost half of the
mesoscutum (Image 15f). Promesonotal and mesometanotal sutures distinct.
Inferior half of the anepisternum and the superior higher portion of the
katepisternum smooth (Image 15D). Mesoscutellum gently sloping towards
the metanotum. Petiole and postpetiole same as worker, with well-developed
subpetiolar process. Gaster shiny black, otherwise same as worker. Sculpture of
head, mesosoma and first gastral tergite punctate, other gastral tergites
finely reticulate. Body covered in sparse semierect hairs, brownish white in
color throughout the entire body, including petiole and postpetiole (Images 15D,F).
Male (Images 13B,D)
Measurements (n = 1). HL 0.61, HW 0.65, SL
0.12, EL 0.22, Clypeal groove: 0.16, DML 1.20, PW 0.65, PeL 0.30, PeW 0.21, PeH
0.18, A3L 0.26, A3W 0.23, A3H 0.22 including tubercle, GL 1.10, TL 3.47, CI
1.06, SI 17.98.
Smaller than conspecific female castes.
Head blackish-brown, wider than long, eyes large and occupying the lower half
of the lateral head margin. Three large ocelli present. Mandibles highly
reduced, masticatory margin toothless. Antennae 12-segmented, scape short,
almost equal to other segments of the antennae (Images 13B,D). Frontal
margins subparallel, extending from the lower median ocelli downwards. Vertexal
margin straight. In lateral view, mesosomal dorsum convex. Propodeal declivity
less pronounced than in the workers. Subpetiolar process absent. Postpetiole
lacking ventral tubercles. Body shiny (especially gaster) and generally finely
punctate. Pilosity sparse, whole body covered by semierect whitish hairs and
longer brownish hairs (Image 13B).
Etymology: The specific epithet keralensis
is feminine, and refers to the state of Kerala, in southern India, where the
species was discovered.
Ecological Notes: The species is currently only
known from Agasthyamalais and Periyar Tiger Reserve in the southern Western
Ghats of Peninsular India. This species was collected in tropical evergreen
forests and mixed forests, ranging from 500–1,200 m. In the west coast tropical
evergreen forest, habitat was characterized by Myristica (Myristicaceae)
swamp forests and southern sub-tropical hill forests in the southern Western
Ghats. Ants were observed moving on fallen tree trunks in shaded regions (Image
16A). On further investigation, the colonies were located inside crevices
and under the bark of dead tree trunks. Upon disturbance, workers would disappear
into tiny holes and crevices in the dead wood. One full colony was found at 800
m in Agasthyamalai had 52 workers, 20 males, 10 alate gynes, larvae and pupae
in various stages of development. Occasionally, solitary gynes were observed
under tree bark. No evidence of parasitic behaviour was noticed during our
observation, although this needs detailed investigation. Workers were observed
preying on beetle larvae and small arthropods nesting on tree bark, dead wood,
and bracket fungi (Image 16B).
Diagnosis and Remarks
Based on descriptive and
morphometric data on workers of Vollenhovia from Forel (1911,
1912), Bharti & Kumar (2013), and images of other related species
from the AntWeb (2021) (see key below), we found that the workers of Vollenhovia
keralensis can be distinguished from other Vollenhovia species
reported for the Indian subcontinent and adjoining Indian Ocean Islands by the
following combination of characters: body size (TL 3.53–3.65 mm); convex
anterior clypeal margin with a single median tooth; masticatory margin of
mandibles with eight teeth, increasing in size from base to apex, and a
well-developed subpetiolar process. From V. oblonga subspecies (V.
oblonga alluaudi Emery, 1894 from Seychelles and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, as well as V. oblonga levithorax Emery 1889 from Tenasserim
hills of Indo-Malaysia), the new species is easily differentiated by having a
single median tooth on the clypeal margin, feature absent on V. oblonga and
its subspecies. Vollenhovia keralensis can be differentiated from V.
penetrans (Smith, 1857) – only known from alate gynes (AntWeb 2021) – based
on the petiole length (subequal in the former), and petiole height (higher than
long). Vollenhovia escherichi Forel, 1911 from Sri Lanka can be easily
differentiated from the new species based on its size (TL ≤2.1 mm) as per Forel (1911), and pale yellowish-brown integumental
coloration. With V. piroskae Forel, 1912 (from Seychelles), V. keralensis
shares the clypeus with a single median tooth, but the former can be distinguished
by its smaller size (TL 2.2–2.4 mm) and mandible with 6–7 teeth while V. keralensis
is larger (TL 3.53–3.65 mm) and worker having eight teeth on the mandible. V.
keralensis is distinguished from the Himalayan V. gastropunctata by
the workers of the former having masticatory margin with a large apical
and preapical teeth and followed by five teeth of equal size, and body length
(≤2.55 mm in V. gastropunctata). Additionally, the anterior margin of
clypeus is convex with a single median tooth in V. keralensis which
is concave in V. gastropunctata.
Key to Vollenhovia species
of Indian subcontinent based on the worker caste
1) Comparatively small species (TL ≤2.1 mm);
Head small HW less than 0.4 mm; color pale yellowish-brown ............ V.
escherichi Forel, 1911
- Comparatively larger species (TL >2.1
mm); HW more than 0.5 mm; color dark brown to black
........................................................................... 2
2) Anterior clypeal margin convex with a single
median tooth …………………………..…..… 3
- Anterior clypeal margin concave with no
such median tooth ………………………..………..……. 4
3) Size smaller (TL <2.50 mm); mandible with
7 teeth or less……………………..V. piroskae Forel, 1912
- Size larger (TL >3.50 mm); mandible
with 8 teeth ................. V. keralensis sp. nov.
4) Mandible with 6 teeth or less
....................... V. oblonga (Smith, 1860) and its subspecies
- Mandible with 7 teeth
............................................. V. gastropunctata Bharti
& Kumar, 2013
Discussion
The report of the three new
generic records from the Western Ghats region of peninsular India presents
interesting observations on ant biogeography of the Indian region.
The new Proceratium
species is a hypogaeic denizen of wet tropical rainforests at mid-elevation
(900–1,200 m). The nearest record of the genus Proceratium in the
Indo-Malayan region is Meghalaya in India and Bhutan, and in the Afrotropical
region from Mauritius, Madagascar and mainland Africa. The discovery of the new
species of Proceratium in peninsular India provides support to vicariant
speciation of its ancestors from Gondwana into mainland Africa, Malagasy region
and Indian subcontinent. There are similar examples of such evolutionarily
intriguing distributions of Gondwanan hypogaeic lifeforms between Africa, Malagasy,
and Kerala state in Western Ghats. The fossorial amphibian Nasikabatrachus
sahyadriensis Biju & Bossuyt, 2003 from the family Nasikabatrachidae in
Kerala is related to Sooglossidae, an amphibian family found only in the
Seychelles archipelago (Zachariah et al. 2012). Other examples are found in
subterranean freshwater cave fishes of the genus Horaglanis Menon,
1950 (Clariidae) which are related to Uegitglanis Gianferrari, 1923 (Uegitglanididae)
from Somalia (Menon 1951; Silas 2010), and decapod crustaceans of the
genus Eurindicus De Grave, Arjun & Raghavan, 2018
(Euryrhynchidae) which are related to three west African species (De Grave et
al. 2018).
The nearest distribution range of
Zasphinctus is mainland Africa on the west and Thailand on the east. The
absence of the genus from middle east Asia (AntWeb, 2021), Madagascar (Fisher
1996), Mauritius, Reunion, and Seychelles is interesting, although may also be
due to collection bias or regional extinction. Most species of Zasphinctus
are recorded from the Australasian region (AntWeb 2021), with one species
recorded from Thailand (Jaitrong 2016). The known distribution of Zasphinctus
aligns with the tectonics of the region, as Africa and India were in close
contact after the Indian plate separated from Madagascar-Seychelles about 65
mya (Briggs 2003), while the Indian plate had already come into contact with
the Eurasian plate (55–65 mya). During the northward migration of India, its
land mass maintained close contact with mainland Africa. Since the epicentre of
speciation of Zasphinctus seems to be the Australasian region,
the ancestor of this genus might have reached Africa via the Indian plate. This
highlights the fact that the depiction of India as a completely isolated island
in the Cretaceous is erroneous (Briggs 2003) and the question raised by Fisher
(1996) with respect to the absence of a significant number of endemic taxa in
India. Thus, Zasphinctus, is a good myrmecological example of east to
west faunal dispersal to Africa through India in the late Cretaceous.
The known representatives of
genus Vollenhovia from the Indian region were from the Himalayas, Burma,
rest of the Indo-Malayan region in southeastern Asia, and the associated
islands in the Bay of Bengal. The subspecies V. oblonga levithorax Emery
1889 is known from the Tenasserim hills of Indo-Malaysia (Bingham, 1903), and V.
oblonga alluaudi Emery, 1894 is reported from the nearby Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. For the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, there are also records
of V. penetrans (Smith, 1857) as per Bharti (2016) and AntWeb (2021).
Sri Lanka has one endemic species -– Vollenhovia escherichi Forel, 1911,
with the remaining members of this genus distributed in the Southeast Asian
region and Australasia and further into the Americas (AntWeb 2021). The genus
is currently thought to be absent in mainland Africa, Mauritius, and Reunion.
Interestingly, the Seychelles Islands in the Malagasy bioregion has two taxa, V.
oblonga Emery, 1894 (subspecies alluaudi) and V.
piroskae Forel, 1912. Both these species are represented in the
Australasian, Oceania, and Andamans in Malayan bioregions, but curiously absent
from peninsular India as far as known, even though the latter is closer to the
Malagasy region. This presents an interesting mode of distribution as explained
below. The ancestors of Vollenhovia must have reached the Indian
peninsula after its separation from
mainland Africa in the Paleogene. By this time, Africa and Seychelles
were probably completely separated from the northward-moving Indian plate
(Briggs 2003). It may seem plausible that the colonisation of Seychelles might
be a recent event for V. piroskae, but the other taxon probably
colonized much earlier and had sufficient time to evolve as subspecies (V.
o. alluaudi), and hence are not recent introductions. This biogeographical
scenario can probably be a result of a dispersal event from Australasian and
Oceania bioregions across the Indian Ocean, rather than by vicariance from
Gondwana, as evidenced by their absence in mainland Africa. The mode of
arboreal life and lignicolous nesting in dead logs might offer a clue for the
survival of colonies and queens along dispersal across the open seas (Brown
1973; Fisher 1996). The dispersal events could be initiated by cyclones of Bay
of Bengal and fuelled by the oceanic currents, an example of the latter is the
south equatorial current of the Indian Ocean, that run between the Indo-Malayan
region and Seychelles (Tomczak & Stuart 2003).
In conclusion, the new
distribution records of the three genus add interesting observations on
biogeographic origins of ants for the Indian region. The genus Proceratium
is a good candidate for a vicariance model of speciation from Gondwana into the
Indian plate. Zasphinctus adds to the body of evidence of linking Africa
to mainland Asia by the Indian plate during late Cretaceous. Finally, Vollenhovia
is a good example of east-to-west faunal dispersal from Malayan
bioregion to Western Ghats of India in the Paleogene, in similarity to
other ant genera with an Indomalayan distribution like Tyrannomyrmex
Fernández, 2003 and Indomyrma Brown, 1986 (Zryanin 2012). The
addition of these new taxa to the building body of molecular phylogenies could
provide interesting avenues for future biogeographic analyses.
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