Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 May 2026 | 18(5): 28950–28956

ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)

https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7628.18.5.28950-28956

#7628 | Received 09 December 2024| Final received 25 January 2026| Finally accepted 20 April 2026

Diversity of dye-yielding plants traditionally used by ethnic communities of Assam, India

Bhuban Chandra Chutia ¹, Hena Parbin ², Abhijit Chandra Roy ³ , Krishna Kanta Medhi ⁴ & Utpal Bora ⁵

^1,2,3 Department of Zoology, , Nagaon University, Nagaon, Assam 782001, India.

⁴ Department of Botany, Nagaon University, Nagaon, Assam 782001, India.

⁵ Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India.

¹ bhuban78@gmail.com (corresponding author), ² henaparbin12@gmail.com, ³ abhichroy@gmail.com, ⁴ medhikrishnc@gmail.com, ⁵ ubora@iitg.ac.in

Editor: K. Haridasan, Palakkad, Kerala, India. Date of publication: 26 May 2026 (online & print)

Citation: Chutia, B.C., H. Parbin, A.C. Roy, K.K. Medhi & U. Bora (2026). Diversity of dye-yielding plants traditionally used by ethnic communities of Assam, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 18(5): 28950–28956. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7628.18.5.28950-28956

Copyright: © Chutia et al. 2026. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.

Funding: NECBH, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati and DBT, Govt. of India through Major Research Project [NECBH/2019-20/115, Dated: 29-04-19] & Department of Science & Technology (SEED DIVISION), STI Hub under reference no. DST/SEED/TSP/STI/2021/741(G)/1, Dated: 28-08-2023

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Author details: Dr. Bhuban Chandra Chutia, Associate Professor & Head, Department of Zoology, Nagaon University, Nagaon, Assam, India. Dr. Hena Parbin, guest faculty, Department of Zoology, Nagaon University, Nagaon, Assam, India. Abhijit Chandra Roy, research scholar, Department of Zoology, Nagaon University, Nagaon, Assam, India. Dr. Krishna Kanta Medhi, Associate Professor (retired 2021), Department of Botany, Nowgong College (Autonomous). Prof. Utpal Bora, Professor & Head, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India

Author contribution: This work was carried out in cooperation among all authors. All the authors contributed to the design of the study. Hena Parbin and Abhijit Chandra Roy have done all the collection work, extraction of dye and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Author Krishna Kanta Medhi identified plant samples and authors Bhuban Chandra Chutia and Utpal Bora contributed to the management and execution of the study and supervised the whole work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments: Authors thankfully acknowledge the financial support of NECBH, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati and DBT, Govt. of India through Major Research Project [NECBH/2019-20/115, Dated: 29-04-19] and Department of Science & Technology (SEED DIVISION) under reference no. DST/SEED/TSP/STI/2021/741(G)/1.

Abstract: Many plant species contain natural colouring matter in their leaves, seeds, fruits, roots or bark, suitable for use as dyes. This paper deals with the diversity of traditional dye-yielding plants used by ethnic communities in Assam, India. Field investigation was carried out in villages of upper, middle, and lower Assam, and information was collected based on a semi-structured questionnaire, interviews, and discussions among the major ethnic communities. We report a checklist of 45 plant species used by 13 ethnic communities, including vernacular names and plant parts used. Women in every ethnic group of Assam have rich traditional knowledge of colouring textiles and other objects with dyes extracted from locally available plants, and of fixing them to different bases. Natural dye-yielding plants have immense significance in the socio-economic and socio-cultural life of these ethnic communities. Proper documentation and exploration of dye-yielding plants will help to preserve traditional knowledge.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Bio-resources, community, documentation, exploration, ethnic Community, Mordents, natural dye, Scientific approach, Textile Industry, traditional Knowledge.

Introduction

Natural sources have long been widely used for dyeing. Plant-based natural dyes were first recorded around 2600 BC in China. The Indus Valley Civilization also used dyes from plant sources (Siva 2007). Plant and animal products are used for dyeing (Gupta 1999), and leaves, fruits, barks, seeds, and roots of many plant species are used for extracting colour. Natural resources endemic to a particular region are used in different parts of the world for their own natural dyeing tradition. In the second half of the 19^th Century with the invention of synthetic dyes, the use of natural dyes started declining (Saravan & Chandramohan 2011). Synthetic dye has replaced natural dye for the rapid industrialization of textile production due to its easy availability and simple application process in ready-to-apply form. The beauty of natural dyes, however, has survived among specific communities that traditionally pass the knowledge to their next generation without proper documentation. Various research across the world has revealed the toxic effect of synthetic dyes. They release harmful chemicals, causing health hazards and degrading nature’s ecological balance. The effluents of synthetic dyes contain carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals, which pose a serious threat to living organisms (Novotny et. al. 2006; Mathur & Bhatnagar 2007; Uddin et al. 2014). Due to growing awareness on health and the environment, the use of natural dye is revived because of its eco-friendly and biodegradable nature (Prusty et al. 2010). Throughout the world, textile industries have shown dynamism in terms of growth and export performance of natural dye (Cautisicos 2006). Applications of natural dye on natural fibers not only have high compatibility with the environment but also provide health benefits to the wearer (Sarkar 2004; Singh et al. 2005). Despite the several advantages of natural dyes over synthetic, the present international consumption of natural dye is only 1% of the synthetic. This limitation is caused by a lack of scientifically validated information on dye-yielding sources, along with technical drawbacks related to dye extraction and a standardization process (Patil et al. 2012).

Natural dye-yielding plants are one of the most important natural resources found in Assam. The ethnic people are only now exploring its high potential for commercial and industrial expansion. Women in every ethnic group of Assam have perfected ways of colouring textiles and other objects with dyes extracted from locally available plants and fixing them to different bases. The state of Assam has a large number of major tribes and sub-tribes broadly belonging to the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock, including ethnic groups like Tai Ahom, Kacharis, Rabhas, Chutias, Bodos, Tiwas, SaraniaKacharis, MechKacharis, Thengal-Kacharis, and Deoris, with varied composition of cultural diversity. The information regarding dye-yielding plant in Northeast India is meager (Borthakur 1990; Ahmed & Borthakur 2005; Mahanta & Tiwari 2005; Sharma et al. 2005). Kar & Borthakur (2007) reported 47 dye-yielding plants from Assam. Akimpou et al. (2005) reported 25 dye-yielding plants used by Karbis of Assam. Hence, the present study has been undertaken to investigate and explore the availability of natural dye-yielding plant species in Assam and gather information on traditional knowledge associated with the use of natural dyes. A need of the hour is a proper exploration of dye-yielding plants traditionally used by the ethnic communities of Assam to generate a database of natural dyes, which will significantly help augment the textile industry.

Materials and Methods

Study area

For the exploration of natural dye-yielding plants, the entire region of Assam is considered. Assam is one of the states of northeastern India, located at 26.2006° N, 92.9376° E, covering an area of 78,438 km² with diverse ecological conditions.

Biodiversity exploration of dye-yielding plants

The survey was started in April 2019 and completed in March 2021. Extensive surveys were conducted in eight districts of upper Assam, two districts of middle Assam, and one district of lower Assam. Rural artisans from 13 different communities were interviewed, and a structured questionnaire was provided pertaining to various information regarding the traditional use of dye-yielding plants and preparation methods. A list of dye-yielding plants was compiled, comprising 45 species used by 13 communities in Assam.

Sample collection

The surveyed plants were photographed, and various parts of the plants, such as roots, seeds, leaves, and bark, used for dye extraction, were collected for preparation of a herbarium using a standard herbarium technique (Jain & Rao 1977). The collected plant samples were identified in consultation with plant taxonomist, monographs and relevant literature.

Results

Plant-based natural dyes are used for traditional dyeing by different communities of Assam. The part used in the extraction of dye, along with the vernacular name of the plant, is given in Table 1 & 2. From 13 different communities of Assam, 45 dye-yielding plants are recorded. Rutaceae, Rubiaceae, Moraceae, and Euphorbiaceae families were found to be dominant, with the Garo community utilizing eight different dye-yielding plant species, the highest diversity of usage among the 13 communities surveyed. These plants have been used by people of different communities to dye silk, yarns of wool, cotton, and garments.

Discussion

Traditional costumes and colour combinations elucidate the identity of a particular community. Ethnic people extracted dye from different parts of plants to colour natural fibers like Eri silk yarn. Natural dye, like synthetic dye, can also be used to colour textiles at any stage, such as fiber, yarn or fabric. Mordants are used in the dyeing process to improve dye fastness. They have an affinity for both textile fibers and dyes. By using different metallic mordants variation in color can be achieved with the same dyestuff. Along with its eco-friendly nature, natural dyes are also soothing to eyes in harmony with nature. Beautiful colours on textiles, obtained with plant-based dyes, show significant variation among different plant sources and parts.

The present investigation recorded 45 dye-yielding plant species belonging to 30 families from different regions of Assam, and discusses the richness of the traditional knowledge of dyeing in 13 communities of Assam. Among them, the Garo community reported using eight plant species for dyeing. Sutradhar et al. (2015) recorded 39 species of dye-yielding plants belonging to 26 families from Tripura. Gaur (2007) reported 106 dye-yielding plant belonging to 63 families from Uttarakhand Himalaya. His extensive survey showed that the majority of dye resources belong to dicotyledons, with the exception of four monocots, three gymnosperms, and three lichens. Kar & Borthakur (2007) investigated and documented 47 species of dye-yielding plants prevalent among five communities of Assam, viz., Assamese, Bodo, Karbi, Missing, and Deori. From five districts of Arunachal Pradesh, Mahanta & Tiwari (2005) recorded 37 species of dye-yielding plants belonging to 26 families. Fabaceae was dominant, with six species, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae with four each, and Juglandaceae with two species, the remaining 21 families represented by one species each. Borgohain et. al. (2018) studied natural dyes and textiles as cultural markers among the Tai Phake of upper Assam. Colour combinations and costume variations differentiate age gradation among males and marital status among females. They also observed that colours such as black, violet, purple, and green are dominated by synthetic dye while yellow is extracted from the bark of Garcinia xanthochymus. They also noted that the culture is now confined to surviving aged women of the tribe. This study on natural dyes thus presents potential application and immense scope for small-scale industrial prospects.

Conclusion

The present study on natural dye-yielding plants of Assam revealed the rich traditional culture among the communities of Assam. This unique indigenous knowledge and practice on dye-yielding is declining day by day among the new generation because of the easy availability of cheap synthetic dyes and a modern attitude and lifestyle. It observes that the traditional practice of dye-making has survived only among a few elderly people, and there are few attempts to conserve and promote this beautiful treasure of traditional knowledge. The natural dyes obtained from plant sources are biodegradable, non-toxic and environmentally friendly. Dyes have multifarious applications, including an emerging branch of medicine, Chromotherapy, which relies heavily on natural dyes. Synthetic dyes contain chemicals that may cause sensitivities and potential health concerns. Dyes used in textiles, food, beverages, perfumes, lotions, and medicines must adhere to special safety measures like being nontoxic, less or non-allergenic, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. It is of the utmost necessity to document and conserve the valuable treasure of this traditional knowledge system, without which we will lose vital information on the utilisation of natural resources around us. Systematic and scientific approaches for the extraction, processing, and usage of natural dyes, along with their conservation strategy, will benefit the ethnic community of Assam, enhancing their economy and intensifying future bio-prospecting and eco-friendly products.

Table 1. List of dye-yielding plants traditionally used by 13 different communities of Assam.

	Scientific name	Family	Vernacular name	Colour of the dye
1	Acanthus sp.	Acanthaceae	Indigo grass / Neel gos	Dark Blue
2	Aegle marmelos	Rutaceae	Bel	Yellow
3	Ageratum conyzoides	Asteraceae	Gundhuabon	Soft green
4	Allium cepa	Liliaceae	Onion / Piyaj	Red
5	Anthocephalus cadamba	Rubiaceae	Pumgos (roghugos) / RaghuKadam	Yellow
6	Areca catechu	Arecaceae	Tamul	Dark brown
7	Artocarpus integrifolia	Moraceae	Jackfruit / Kathal	Yellow
8	Artocarpus lacucha	Moraceae	Bohot	Yellow
9	Baccaurea ramiflora	Phyllanthaceae	Leteku	Orange red
10	Bixa orellana	Bixaceae	Jorot / Annatto	Orange
11	Calamus viminalis	Arecaceae	Betguti	Yellow
12	Ceriscoides campanulata	Rubiaceae	Bihmona	Reddish-brown
13	Citrus aurantiifolia	Rutaceae	Kajinemu	Golden yellow
14	Citrus reticulata	Rutaceae	Orange / Komola	Yellow
15	Corchorus capsularis	Tiliaceae	Juteplant / Morapat	Light brown
16	Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Kesahaldhi	Yellow
17	Dillenia indica	Dilleniaceae	Owtenga	Brown
18	Diospyros melanoxylon	Ebenaceae	Kendu	Brown
19	Eclipta prostrata	Asteraceae	Keheraj	Black
20	Emblica officinalis	Euphorbiaceae	Aamlokhi	Black
21	Ficus bengalensis	Moraceae	Aahot	Brown
22	Garcinia xanthochymus	Clusiaceae	Tepor-tenga	Yellow
23	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis	Malvaceae	JobaPhul	Purple
24	Indigofera tinctoria	Fabaceae	Sibu / Assam indigo	Blue
25	Lawsonia inermis	Lythraceae	Jetuka	Bluish- black
26	Melastoma malabathricum	Melestomataceae	FutuKola	Black
27	Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Mango	Yellow
28	Mesua ferrea	Calophyllaceae	Nahar	Yellow
29	Musa velutina	Musaceae	Kolakhar	Reddish-brown
30	Nyctanthes arbor-tristis	Nyctanthaceae	Sewali	Orange
31	Oryza sativa	Poaceae	Dhankher	Yellow-brown
32	Punica granatum	Lythraceae	Dalim / Pomegranate	Yellow
33	Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	Manjistha	Red
34	Sapindus mukorossi	Sapindaceae	Monichal	Light brown
35	Spondias pinnata	Anacardiaceae	Amora	Brown
36	Syzygium cumini	Myrtaceae	Jamun	Black
37	Tagetes patula	Asteraceae	Narzi / GendhaPhul	Yellow
38	Tectona grandis	Verbenaceae	Sagoon	Yellow
39	Terminalia catappa	Combretaceae	Silikha	Black
40	Camellia sinensis var. assamica	Theaceae	Tea	Pale green (Fresh leaves) Brown (Dried leaves)
41	Trewia nudiflora	Euphorbiaceae	Velou	Reddish-brown
42	Ziziphus jujube	Rhamnaceae	Bogori	Brown
43	Argemone mexicana	Papaveraceae	Siyalkata	Yellowish-green
44	Impatiens roylei	Balsaminaceae	Demderuka	Brown
45	Basella rubra	Basellaceae	Puroi	Maroon

Table 2. Dye-yielding plants used by different communities of Assam.

Community	Scientific name	Vernacular name	Parts used
Khamti	Ceriscoides campanulata	Bihmona	Whole plant
	Sapindus mukorossi	Monichal	Stem bark
	Artocarpus heterophyllus	Jackfruit	Stem bark and roots
	Garcinia cowa	Teportenga	Roots
Mising	Terminalia chebula	Silikha	Fruits
	Ziziphus jujuba	Bogori	Stem bark
	Camellia sinensis var. assamica	Tea	Leaf
	Syzygium cumini	Jamun	Stem bark
	Areca catechu	Tamul	Seed/ seed peel
	Calamus viminalis	Betguti	Seed/fruit
	Anthocephalus cadamba	Pumgos (roghugos) / RaghuKadam	Stem/bark
Deori	Citrus aurantifolia	Bortenga	Fruit skin
	Syzygium cumini	Jamun	Stem bark
	Artocarpus hetrophyllus	Jackfruit	Stem bark
Thengal-kachari	Dillenia indica	Owtenga	Stem bark
	Oryza sativa	Dhankher	Seed
Sonowalkachari	Citrus aurantifolia	Bortenga	Straw/ stem
	Musa velutina	Kolakhar	Dried stem
Tiwa	Spondias pinnata	Amora	Dried stem
	Aegle marmelos	Bel	Fruit
	Camellia sinensis var. assamica	Tea	Leaf
	Ficus benghalensis	Aahot	Bark
	Acanthus sp.	Niligos	Leaf
	Curcuma longa	Halodhi	Rhizome
	Basella rubra	Puroi	Seed
Karbi	Hibiscus rosa sinensis	JobaPhul	Flower
	Emblica officinalis	Aamlokhi	Bark
	Nyctanthes arbor-tristis	Sewali	Flower
	Diospyros melanoxylon	Kendu	Seed/ fruit
	Allium cepa	Onion	Rhizome
	Trewia nudiflora	Velou	Seed/ fruit
	Mesua ferrea	Nahar	Seed/ fruit
	Terminalia chebula	Silikha	Fruit
Bodo	Tectona grandis	Sagoon	Stem, bark, leaf
	Ageratum conyzoides	Gundhuabon	Flower
	Lawsonia inermis	Jetuka	Leaf
	Sapindus mukorossi	Monichal	Fruits
	Camellia sinensis var. assamica	Tea	Leaf
Garo	Terminalia chebula	Khilikha	Seed/fruit
	Eclipta alba	Kehraj	Black
	Baccaurea remiflora	Leteku	Leaf
	Rubia cordifolia	Manjistha	Whole plant
	Acanthus sp.	Indigo grass	Whole plant
	Artocarpus hetrophyllus	Jack fruits	Stem/bark/wood
	Indigofera tinctoria	Indigo	Whole plant
	Curcuma longa	Halodhi	Rhizome
Rabha	Punica granatum	Dalim/Pomegranate	Fruit skin
	Tagetes patula	Narzi/GendhaPhul	Flower
	Artocarpus hetrophyllus	Jackfruit	Stem/ bark/ wood
	Terminalia chebula	Khilikha	Seed/ fruit
Motok	Citrus aurantifolia	Rababtenga	Fruit skin
	Oryza sativa	Dhankher	Poaceae
	Musa velutina	Vimkolorkoldil	Plant
	Terminalia chebula	Khilikha	Seed/ fruit
	Spondias pinnata	Amora	Fruit/ bark
	Mangifera indica	Mango	Bark
	Artocarpus lacucha	Bohot	Fruit
Moran	Citrus reticulatus	Orange	Fruit skin
	Corchorus capsularis	Morapat	Whole plant
Ahom	Malestoma malabathricum	FutuKola	Fruits/ flower
	Bixa orellana	Jorot/Annanto	Seed
	Argemone mexicana	Siyalkata	Seed
	Impatience roylei	Demderuka	Flower

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