Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 October 2021 | 13(12): 19714–19724
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7584.13.12.19714-19724
#7584 | Received 01 August 2021 | Final
received 14 September 2021 | Finally accepted 01 October 2021
Habitat use and conservation
threats to Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee (Mammalia: Artiodactyla:
Bovidae) in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal
Reeta Khulal
1, Bijaya Neupane
2, Bijaya Dhami
3, Siddhartha Regmi 4, Ganesh Prasad
Tiwari 5 & Manita Parajuli 6
1 Tribhuvan University, Institute
of Forestry, Office of Dean, Kirtipur, Kathmandu,
44600, Nepal.
2,3,6 Tribhuvan University, Institute
of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, 33700, Nepal.
4 Tribhuvan University, Institute
of Forestry, Hetauda Campus, Hetauda,
44107, Nepal.
5 Agriculture and Forestry
University, Faculty of Forestry, Hetauda, 44107,
Nepal.
1 reetkc9336@gmail.com, 2 bijneu@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 3 bijaysinghdhami@gmail.com, 4 iregmisid@gmail.com,
5 tiwari.ganesh24@gmail.com, 6
manitaparajuli11@gmail.com
Editor: L.A.K.
Singh, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Date
of publication: 26 October 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Khulal,
R., B. Neupane, B. Dhami,
S. Regmi, G.P. Tiwari & M. Parajuli
(2021). Habitat use and conservation
threats to Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee (Mammalia: Artiodactyla:
Bovidae) in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(12): 19714–19724. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7584.13.12.19714-19724
Copyright: © Khulal et al. 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: This was self-funded
research of M.Sc student Reeta
Khulal, although instrument
was provided by her Institution
“Tribhuvan
University” during the
field research.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Reeta Khulal is a MSc graduate in wildlife,
protected area management, and biodiversity conservation. Bijaya Neupane is an assistant professor
in wildlife and protected area management working with the Department of Park
Recreation and Wildlife Management at his institution since December 2016. He
possesses more than 5 years of research and teaching experiences in ecology and
wildlife conservation in Nepal as well as some field and lab experiences in
Norway and Sweden. Bijaya Dhami is a BSc Forestry final
year student and is actively involved in several conservation activities and is
a president of his NGO, one of the green organization of Pokhara. Siddhartha
Regmi is a BSc Forestry graduate and now he is
working as a research technician in conservation NGO, Care for Nature, Nepal
and is directly involved in numerous wildlife related projects. Ganesh Prasad Tiwari is a MSc Forestry
student. Manita Parajuli is a
BSc final year student.
Author contributions: Conceptualization and research
design – RK and BN; Data collection – RK and GPT; Data analysis and
interpretation – RK, BN, BD and SR; Manuscript preparation – RK, BN, BD and SR;
Editorial input – BN, BD, SR and MP; Critical review and revision at different
stages – all authors contributed equally; Finalizing the manuscript – RK, BN
and MP; correspondence with the journal – BN.
Acknowledgements: We are very grateful to: the
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) and Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve
(KTWR) for permitting us to conduct this study; Tribhuvan University, Institute
of Forestry for the instrument support during the fieldwork; Prof. Achyut Raj Gyawali and Assist.
Prof. Mr. Deepak Gautam for their continuous encouragement and support
throughout this study; Dr. Menuka Maharjan,
Mr. Subash Budathoki, and Ms. Sangeeta Timilsina for their valuable supports and contributions
during the field survey; the local people and representatives of local
organizations who assisted us during our fieldwork; and all the anonymous
reviewers and editors for their precious time, suggestions, and comments to
improve this manuscript.
Abstract: Wild Water Buffalo (WWB) Bubalus arnee is an
endangered species and a protected animal in Nepal. The remaining WWB
population is located in Koshi Tappu
Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), and it appears to have low viability under prevailing
conditions. We assessed the habitat use and conservation threats to wild water
buffalo in KTWR. For habitat analysis the quadrant method was used. Eighty-four
quadrants of 25 m2 for trees, 168 quadrants of 10m2 for
shrubs and 336 quadrants of 1 m2 for herbs were laid out in the
study area. Ivlev’s electivity index (IV) was
calculated to assess the use of different habitat components. The important
Value Index (IVI) was used for vegetation assessment. A relative threat ranking
method was used to assess conservation threats for wild buffalo and their
habitats. Wild buffalo mostly preferred habitats with distance to water
resources less than 500 m (IV= 0.4), less than 25 % crown coverage (IV= 0.39)
and more than 75 % ground coverage (IV= 0.42). The trees species Phyllanthus
emblica, Acacia catechu, shrub
species Mimosa pudica and the herb species Brachiaria distachya, Vetiveria zizanioides, Imperata cylindrica, and Saccharum spontaneum were
preferred by WWB in the study area. Among the different plant categories, we
found that Acacia catechu was the most preferred tree species (IVI=
156.95), Mimosa pudica the most preferred
shrub species (IVI= 58.68), and Imperata cylindrica the most preferred herb species (IVI=
64.73). Major conservation threats perceived by local stakeholders for wild
buffaloes were overgrazing by cattle and genetic swamping through crossbreeding
with domestic buffalo. Therefore, conservation of grass species through control
of grazing, and prevention of cross breeding are measures supported by this
study. Additionally, site-specific conservation strategies should be adopted,
based on identified threats in the study area.
Keywords: Crossbreeding, endangered,
genetic swamping, important value index, Ivlev’s
electivity index, quadrats.
INTRODUCTION
Nepal has two zoogeographic
regions: Palearctic and Oriental, and is known for faunal diversity including
212 species of mammals (Baral & Shah 2008; Jnawali et al. 2011; Amin et al. 2018), including 49
threatened species. The Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus
arnee (WWB), also called Wild Asian Buffalo
(Image 1) is a large bovine native to southern and southeastern Asia (Dahmer
1978), which primarily occurs in tropical, subtropical forest, and swampy
grasslands (Thapa et al. 2020). It is legally protected in India, Nepal,
Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Bhutan (Groves 1981). This species is
categorized as ‘Endangered’ mammal species on the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (Kaul et al. 2019)
and in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) (CITES 2017). It is one of the
protected mammals included in Nepal’s National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
Act, 1973 (GoN 1973).
WWB is a large powerful animal
that weighs between 800–1,200 kg, with horn span of around 2 m (Aryal et al. 2011). Home ranges are 1.7–10 km2
(Nowak 1999). Generally, males are able to breed after 18 months while females
are able after 3 years. The pregnant female undergoes a gestation period of 12
months and gives birth to a single calf at a time, with a minimum birth
interval of about 2 years (Shrestha 1997). In the wild, WWB can live up to 25
years, and in captivity up to 29 years (Roth 2004). They are social animals and
typically form herds of 10–20 individuals, with herds of up to 100 having been
witnessed (Heinen 1993). Being intensely reliant on water and investing
significant time wallowing in puddles or rivers, they are frequently
sighted in swamps and marshes,
grasslands, and riverine forests (Roth 2004). WWB usually prefer marshy floodplains
with towering elephant grass (e.g., Saccharum
and Phragmites) and scrubby wooded forests of Bombax, Dalbergia, and Acacia (Sah
1997). Additionally, open short grasslands, forests and agriculture fields
provide good shelter (Adhikari 1999).
In Nepal, Koshi
Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), established in 1976,
shelters the last enduring population of WWB, consisting of 498 individuals
(DNPWC 2021). With the aim to establish a second sub-population of WWB, 15
individuals were translocated and kept in an enclosure in Chitwan National Park
in January 2017, but their viability is
not yet ensured (Shah et al. 2017). Thus conserving WWB in KTWR is a serious
issue that is getting more critical every year. The species and their habitat
have been mainly threatened by human interference, including illegal hunting,
habitat fragmentation, and degradation (Heinen & Kandel 2006; Kafle et al. 2020). Besides, there is also the severe
problem of crossbreeding with domestic buffalo (Khatri et al. 2012),
consequently losing the genetic diversity of the species (Kaul et al. 2019).
There is only about 0.8 km2 area per individual WWB in the reserve,
which is inadequate to sustain a thriving buffalo population (Aryal et al. 2011).
Apart from habitat-use
information, it is essential for conservationists to find out the threat status
of an ecological community (Nicholson et al. 2009; Joshi et al. 2020) to plan
and implement conservation activities effectively. The threat ranking method
used by WWF in the Standards of Project and Program Management shows the degree
to which each direct threat affects the biodiversity target at a given site
(WWF 2007). In this study, a similar technique was employed, which consisted of
recognizing a set of standards and applying them to direct risks in order to
develop a conservation action plan by focusing on the areas where they are most
needed. To our knowledge, very limited studies have been conducted particularly
on the habitat use and threats of WWB in the study area, so this study attempts
to fulfill such information gap that can help the conservationists, planners,
and reserve managers to implement the required conservation measures for such
threatened and isolated species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The KTWR extends from
86.916–87.0830 E to 26.566–26.7510 N and is located in Eastern Nepal’s Saptari, Sunsari, and Udaypur districts, on the alluvial flood plains of the Sapta Koshi River (Figure 1). It
covers a total core area of 175 km2 with an additional buffer zone
of about 173 km² surrounding the reserve, declared in 2004. Recognizing the
reserve’s significance, it was assigned as a wetland of global significance and
included in the Ramsar list on 17 December 1987 (IUCN
1990). The reserve is mostly comprised of riverine grasslands (56%), sand &
gravel deposits (22%), agricultural field (5%), forest land (1%), river &
stream (10%), marshes & swamps (6%), and lake & pond (0.01%) (Chettri
et al. 2013). It is listed as an important bird area where 490 species of birds
have been recorded (Shrestha & Pantha 2018).
Natural predators of WWB such as Leopard Panthera
pardus, Dhole Cuon
alpinus, Tiger Panthera
tigris, were wiped out from KTWR for at the last
40 years (Heinen & Paudel 2015). The climate of
the reserve is the tropical monsoonal type and the monsoon season, which runs from
mid-June to late September, accounts for 80–85 percentage of total rainfall.
The average monthly temperature ranges between 15.7 0C and 29.2 0C
and the average annual rainfall range from 1,300 mm to 2,050 mm with higher
humidity that remains throughout the year.
Data collection
We conducted the field study
between December 2019 and January 2020. In the initial phase, all the potential
sites of WWB, in consultation with the experienced park staff and warden, were
surveyed for evidence such as droppings, exudation of sap, crushed tissues,
fresh clipping, and direct sighting during the active periods of dawn and dusk
(Heinen & Singh 2001). Then, a random sampling method was adopted to
identify different attributes of habitat associated with WWB. Both Habitat Use
plots “U” and Availability plots “A” were established on those sites. In each
location where the indirect evidence (droppings, hair, pugmarks, bedding sites,
and horns) of the WWB were observed; the habitat use plot was established
within a distance of 50 m (Neupane et al. 2021).
Different habitat attributes from each plot such as ground cover, crown cover,
and distance to water source were noted. Further, Availability plots were
established within 100 m distance from the Use plots in random direction (Neupane et al. 2021). Similar habitat attributes were noted
in each availability plot as noted in use plots. If any signs of the WWB were
observed in availability plots, the availability plots were renamed as use
plots. Vegetation analysis was conducted on both the availability and use
plots. Eighty-four quadrants each of size 25 x 25 m for trees; 168 nested
quadrants of 10 x 10 m for shrubs and 336 nested quadrants of 1x 1 m for herbs
were laid out randomly on those selected sites (Figure 2). Within each
quadrant, all the trees were counted and their diameter at breast height (DBH),
and heights were assessed using diameter tape and clinometers respectively.
Similarly, the species composition and percentage cover of shrubs and herbs and
their respective frequencies were noted.
Threat assessment was done by
direct field observation and through interviews with the local people, local
experts, and reserve authorities in the study area. These interviewees were
conducted with different local stakeholders who have been residing there for
more than 20 years and are familiar with the WWB and their habitats, following
a similar method used in the previous studies (Chhetri et al. 2020; Neupane et al. 2020). Literature reviews were also
conducted to gather information on various facets of each threat. Interviews
were taken with conservation officers, political pioneers, and heads of the
metropolitan wards to investigate their insight and perspectives on the
existing threats to WWB and their habitats. We assigned the scope, severity,
urgency, and irreversibility ratings of each threat component, and based on the
information gained from these methods, we ranked the threats using the relative
threat ranking method.
Data analysis
The habitat utilization of WWB
was analyzed using Ivlev’s electivity index (IV),
whose value ranges in between +1 to -1. The positive value of IV indicates
habitat utilization and negative value indicates habitat avoidance and finally,
zero value indicate random utilization of the habitat (Ivlev
1961). The (IV) value was calculated using following formula.
IV= (U % − A %) / (U % + A %) (Ivlev 1961; Yonzon & Hunter
1989; Neupane et al. 2021).
Percentage of crown cover as well
as ground cover was divided into four categories that include 0–25 %, 26–50 %,
51–75 %, and 76–100 %. Vegetation analysis and calculations was done according
to the methods suggested by Zobel et al. (1987) with the formula mentioned
below.
Number of individual
of A species in all
quadrates
x 100%
Density of species A = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total number of
quadrates studied
x
Size of quadrate taken
Density of species A occurred x 100%
Relative density of species A =
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sum of
all density
No of quadrates in which species A
occurred x 100 %
Frequency of species A =
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total number of quadrates studied
Frequency of species A occurred x 100%
Relative frequency of species A
= ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Sum of total frequences
πd2
Basal area = ––––
4
Coverage of a species x 100%
Relative coverage (RC) =
––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total coverage of all species
Basal area of species x 100%
Relative basal area of species A
(RBA) = –––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total basal area of all species
In the community structure,
importance value index (IVI) provides the general significance of every species
and calculated as mentioned in equations (I) and (II).
IVI= RF+RD+ RC (for herbs and shrubs)
…………………. (I)
IVI= RF+RD+ RBA (for trees)
…….....………………………...(II)
Threat assessment
A relative threat ranking method
was followed in order to assess the conservation threats (TNC 2007; WWF 2007)
and four scales of classification - scope, severity, urgency, and
irreversibility (permanence) (Table 1) (NHWAP 2015) were used to identify and
prioritize the major existing issues based on the collected data. Those four
threat criteria were assigned to each of the identified issues and ranked with
the highest rank equal to the number of total threats.
From these different fields, 10
types of major threats were identified and ranked as threats with the value of
rank ranging from 1 to 10, where the value 10 implies very high with serious
effect, and value 1 implies very low with least effect, respectively. These
values are categorized under a 4-point scale for analysis and categorized as
Very High (VH), High (H), Medium (M), and Low (L).
RESULTS
Habitat utilization
Distance from water sources: WWB mostly utilized the distance
less than 500 m (IV= 0.40), and randomly used distance more than 2000 m (IV= 0)
from the water source. It is observed that as distance from water source
increases, WWB avoided the use of the area (Figure 3).
Crown cover: WWB highly preferred the area
with crown cover of 0–25% (IV= 0.39) followed by 26–50% (IV= 0.13) and avoided
51–75 % (IV= -0.1), and closed crown cover of 76–100% (IV= -0.25) (Figure 4).
Ground cover: WWB highly utilized the area with
76-100% (IV= 0.42) ground cover followed by 0–25% (IV= 0.36), and 51–75% (IV=
0.17), and randomly used the area with 25–50% ground cover (IV= 0) (Figure 5).
Vegetation Analysis
In total, we
recorded nine major species of trees, nine shrub species, and 50 species of
herbs in our study area. Out of nine major tree species, Acacia catechu
possessed the highest IVI. Besides, six of them were preferred by WWB whereas
two of them were randomly used and one species was completely avoided. Among
the nine major species of shrub, Mimosa pudica
possessed the highest IVI among them, which was also the only preferred shrub
species of WWB. Similarly, Ziziphus mauritiana and Cascabela
thevetia were randomly used while other shrub
species were avoided by WWB. Six of the 50 herb species commonly documented in the
research region were preferred by WWB where Imperata
cylindrica shared the highest IVI followed by Saccharum spontaneum,
Phragmites karka and Cynodon
dactylon as shown in Table 2.
Threats assessment
Among the 10 identified threats
to WWB, overgrazing by domestic cattle and crossbreeding between domestic and
WWB were ranked as the most severe threats in the study area. Similarly,
invasion by weeds, disease and parasites, flooding and intensive utilization of
forest resources were ranked as the high threats. Other threats with their
ranked results are mentioned in Table 3.
DISCUSSION
Our study showed that WWB
preferred the area within the distance of 500 m from the river and the habitat
use got decreased with increasing distance from those sources. This might be
because WWB require continuous supply of water for wallowing. Supporting this
fact, Singh (2015) have reported that WWB home range size extends up to 3.9
miles2 that mainly consist of water bodies, grazing area and resting
sheds. Similarly, the study carried out by Dahmer (1978) indicated that the
visibility of WWB is seen less frequent in the dense vegetation. Our study also
showed that WWB mostly used the area with crown cover of only 0–25 % and
avoided the area with crown cover more than 50 %. This might be because the
dense crown cover does not permit the entry of light that is necessary for the
growth of ground cover and necessitates greater alertness to the predators.
Likewise, we observed that WWB mostly preferred the ground cover of 76-–100%.
This preference is obvious because WWB is a chief grazer (Ram & Sharma
2011) and selects area with dense ground cover to fulfill the dietary
requirements.
With regard to types of
vegetation, a study conducted in Thailand revealed that Saccharum
arundinaceum and S. spontaneum
were preferred by WWB (Bolton 1975). Likewise, a study carried out by Lama
(2013) in KTWR showed that Imperata cylindrica, Cynodon dactylon, and Saccharum
spontaneum were preferred by WWB, similar to the
findings of our study. This might be because the KTWR is dominated by the
above-mentioned species as shown by their IVI values. Parihar et al. (1986)
showed that Dalbergia sissoo,
Acacia catechu and Bombax ceiba were the preferred tree species in Kanha National Park and Lama (2013) mentioned that WWB
preferred Acacia-Dalbergia associated forest
in KTWR. However, our study shows that Phyllanthus emblica
and Acacia catechu were the most preferred tree species while Dalbergia sissoo was randomly
used. Majority of the shrub species were avoided by WWB in our study. Siwakoti (2009) identified these species as invasive
species in KTWR, which are regarded as problematic species by Aryal et al. (2011).
WWB face serious threats in KTWR
(Heinen & Kandel 2006). Our study demonstrated that open grazing and
crossbreeding with domestic buffalo are the critical threats to WWB survival in
KTWR. To settle the problem of over grazing, conservation managers had adopted
a few strategies in the past like culling buffaloes of domestic origin with the
permission from DNPWC in 2001, evacuation of domestic cattle from the park
between 2004–2005 and 2010 through a sweeping method (DNPWC 2020). However,
these strategies were ineffective. Livestock farming is a traditional mode of
subsistence for many people in buffer zone. There are few public lands left
outside for grazing, so there is no alternative to use of the reserve as a land
for grazing and bringing their livestock into the reserve for sharing food with
the wild animals. Hence, providing incentives to the local farmer to initiate
stall-feeding might help to control over grazing inside the park.
The small size of the reserve and
higher number of livestock inside it is leading to problems of both in-breeding
of WWB and cross-breeding with domestic buffalo. Low genetic variation among
WWB groups is linked to the practices of local farmers, who crossbreed domestic
females with wild males (Heinen 2001). Flamand et al.
(2003) conducted genetic analysis to validate that the reserve consists of pure
wild stock, and found that three genetically identifiable populations of
buffalo were present in the KTWR: wild, domestic and backcrossed. A study
carried by Aryal et al. (2011) supports our findings
in that they identified livestock grazing inside the KTWR as serious threat to
WWB and their foraging plant species. Adhikari (2006) also reported overgrazing
as major threat, as extensive grazing retards plant regeneration. Similarly,
Khatri et al. (2012) and (KTWR 2018) reported crossbreeding as the major threat
in KTWR similar to our study. Further, our study shows that existing threats
like flooding, invasion by weeds, intensive forest resource extraction, disease
and parasite are of high level, which is supported by several studies. Aryal et al. (2011) stated flooding as the significant
threat in KTWR, which is similar to our finding. Flash floods during monsoons
also have a high chance of impacting WWB, especially calves.
Similar to our findings, Khatri
et al. (2012) reported invasive weeds as serious threat to native vegetation,
including species preferred by WWB. Weeds like Lantana camera, Chromolaena odorta cover most
of the study area and are invading forest areas and grasslands of the reserve,
which is leading to loss of food and destruction of habitat. Similar to our
study, Aryal et al. (2011) noted that over-harvesting
and uncontrolled use of reserve resources are the major threats, where the
local community enter the reserve in unauthorized manner and accumulate grass
and other forest product (Heinen & Kandel 2006). Food preferred by WWB,
such as Imperata cylindrica,
Saccharum spontaneum, Typha
elephentina, and Cynodon
dactylon, are used by local people for fodder,
firewood and making mats, brooms and baskets. Similar to our study, transfer of
disease and parasite from domestic cattle to WWB is also regarded among the
major threats (Aryal et al. 2011; Heinen & Paudel 2015) since there is close overlap of WWB and
domestic livestock, the high density particularly of latter, and the small and
localized nature of WWB population.
Several strategies have been
developed to conserve the endangered population of the WWB of KTWR in joint
efforts by the Government of Nepal with other stakeholders using the habitat.
In order to minimize conflicts between local people and the reserve, an area of
173.5 km2 adjoining to KTWR was set up in 2004 as a buffer zone
which is the innovational strategy for participatory conservation (Khatri et
al. 2012). Further, the management plan of KTWR approved in 2010 is now revised
as the management plan (2018–2022) with the vision to manage ecological
integrity and to conserve biological diversity of the reserve (KTWR 2018).
Likewise, with the assistance of Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands
in Nepal (CSUWN) project, various livelihood and conservation interventions
have been adopted particularly to prevent movement of domestic buffalo
population into KTWR (Khatri et al. 2012). In addition, there is legal
provision by KTWR office over the gathering of forest products like; fuelwood,
fodder and grass in seasonal basis with the aim to reduce illegal collection
(Khatri et al. 2010). Further, to provide sufficient forage and wallowing
locations to guarantee the vitality and ecological integrity of WWB population,
the WWB Conservation Action Plan for Nepal has emphasized to expand the habitat
of KTWR (DNPWC 2020). Likewise, in every two years, KTWR undertakes a census of
wild buffalo to analyze their population dynamics (Khadka 2018).
CONCLUSION
This study concluded that WWB
mostly preferred the habitats within the distance of 500 m from the water
sources, crown cover less than 25 % and ground cover more than 75 %. Imperata cylindrica,
Cynodon dactylon,
and Sacharrum spontaneum
were the most preferred grass species whereas Phyllanthus emblica and Acacia catechu were the most
preferred tree species. However, majority of the shrub species, which have weed
characteristics, were avoided.
Overgrazing and cross breeding with domestic buffalo were the critical
surviving threats to WWB in KTWR. As the last remaining population of WWB is
experiencing several threats, different conservation interventions are required
to secure the wild population. Our study recommends for strict prohibition of
the livestock grazing inside the park, conservation of grass species such as Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum, and
Typha elephentina should be encouraged and
effective management plan for controlling the spread of invasive plant species
such as Chromoleana odorata,
Eupatorium adenophorum, Lantana camara,
and Mikania micrantha should be carried out
immediately. Additionally, there is an urgent need to establish veterinary
clinic, animal orphanages and proper service of rescue to control vulnerability
of wild animals by flood and spreading of communicable diseases.
Table 1. Interpretations of
criteria and associated rankings used to prioritize each threat (adapted from
TNC 2007; WWF 2007; NHWAP 2015).
Criteria and rankings |
Definition |
Scope |
The geographical extent of
impact on the biological target that can be fairly foreseen within 10 years
under existing conditions |
Very high |
The threat is expected to be
pervasive in its scope, influencing the target over all or most (71–100%) of
its occurrence/population. |
High |
The threat is expected to be
widespread in its scope, influencing the target over (31–70%) of its
occurrence/population |
Medium |
The threat is expected to be
restricted in its scope, influencing the target over (11–30%) of its
occurrence/population |
Low |
The threat is expected to be
very narrow in its scope, influencing the target over a less part (1–10%) of
its occurrence/population |
Severity |
The degree of
damage to biological target that may be realistically predicted within 50
years under existing conditions. |
Very high |
The threat is
expected to eliminate or degrade the target or minimize its population by
71–100% within 10 years or 3 generations, within the scope |
High |
The threat is
expected to seriously degrade the target or minimize its population by 31–70%
within 10 years or 3 generations, within the scope |
Medium |
The threat is expected to
moderately degrade the target or minimize its population by 11–30% within 10
years or 3 generations, within the scope |
Low |
The threat is expected to
slightly degrade the target or minimize its population by 1–10% within 10
years or 3 generations, within the scope |
Urgency |
This attribute is used to
measure the certainty and time frame over which the threat's effects will be
seen. |
Very high |
The impacts of the threat are
noticeable already and there is an urgency to take action to cope with the
issue within a year. |
High |
The impacts of the threat are
likely to emerge and the issue are predicted during the upcoming 1–10 years. |
Medium |
The impacts of the threat are
likely to emerge and the issue are predicted within the upcoming 10–25 years. |
Low |
The impacts of the threat are
unlikely to occur and the issue are predicted in about 25 years from now |
Irreversibility |
The extent to which the impacts
of a stressor can be reversed |
Very high |
The threat’s impact cannot be
reverted and it is doubtful that the target can be recovered, and/or it would
take 100 years to attain this |
High |
The threat’s impact
can technically be reverted and the target is likely to be recovered, but it
is not feasible practically and/or it may take long period i.e., 21–100 years
to achieve this |
Medium |
The threat’s impact
can be reverted and the target is likely to be recovered with a sensible
commitment of resources and/or within 6–20 years |
Low |
The threat’s impact
is quickly reversible and the target may be easily recovered at a reasonable
cost and/or within 0–5 years |
Table 2. Most abundant tree,
shrub, and herb species with IV and IVI values.
|
Species |
Local Name |
Family |
Life form |
IV |
IVI |
Preference |
1 |
Acacia catechu |
Khair |
Fabaceae |
Tree |
0.34 |
94.85 |
Preferred |
2 |
Dalbergia sissoo |
Sissoo |
Fabaceae |
Tree |
0 |
36.02 |
Random use |
3 |
Trewia nudiflora |
Gutel |
Euphorbiaceae |
Tree |
-0.25 |
26.32 |
Avoided |
4 |
Bombax ceiba |
Simal |
Malvaceae |
Tree |
0.18 |
21.97 |
Preferred |
5 |
Streblus asper |
Bedula |
Moraceae |
Tree |
0.25 |
9.91 |
Preferred |
6 |
Phyllanthus emblica |
Amala |
Phyllanthaceae |
Tree |
0.42 |
8.81 |
Preferred |
7 |
Albizia chinensis |
Kalo siris |
Fabaceae |
Tree |
0.17 |
5.35 |
Preferred |
8 |
Mangifera indica |
Aanp |
Anacardiaceae |
Tree |
0 |
2.89 |
Random use |
9 |
Syzygium cumini |
Jamun |
Myrtaceae |
Tree |
0.29 |
2.88 |
Preferred |
10 |
Others |
- |
- |
Tree |
|
91 |
- |
11 |
Mimosa pudica |
Shy plant |
Fabaceae |
Shrub |
0.43 |
58.68 |
Preferred |
12 |
Chromoleana odorata |
Ban Masha |
Asteraceae |
Shrub |
-0.95 |
42.25 |
Avoided |
13 |
Lantana camara |
Banmara |
Verbenaceae |
Shrub |
-1.0 |
24.36 |
Avoided |
14 |
Calotropis procera |
Aank |
Apocynaceae |
Shrub |
-1.0 |
19.35 |
Avoided |
15 |
Ziziphus mauritiana |
Bayer |
Rhamnaceae |
Shrub |
0 |
18.18 |
Random used |
16 |
Xanthium strumarium |
- |
Asteraceae |
Shrub |
-0.17 |
15.64 |
Avoided |
17 |
Jatropha curcas |
Sajiwan |
Euphorbiaceae |
Shrub |
-0.31 |
13.58 |
Avoided |
18 |
Datura metel |
Dhaturo |
Solanaceae |
Shrub |
-0.42 |
12.89 |
Avoided |
19 |
Cascabela thevetia |
Yellow oleander |
Apocynaceae |
Shrub |
0 |
8.1895 |
Random used |
20 |
Others |
- |
- |
Shrub |
|
86.873 |
Preferred |
21 |
Imperata cylindrica |
Siru |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.56 |
64.73 |
Preferred |
22 |
Saccharum spontaneum |
Kash |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.49 |
61.47 |
Preferred |
23 |
Phragmites karka |
Narkat |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.31 |
44.55 |
Preferred |
24 |
Cynodon dactylon |
Dubo |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.65 |
34.46 |
Preferred |
25 |
Brachiaria distachya |
Bansho ghas |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.90 |
21.97 |
Preferred |
26 |
Vetiveria zizanioides |
Kus |
Poaceae |
Herb |
0.82 |
16.31 |
Preferred |
27 |
Others |
- |
- |
Herb |
|
56.50 |
- |
Table 3. Relative ranking of the
most severe threats.
|
Threats |
Scope |
Severity |
Urgency |
Irreversibility |
Total |
Threat Classification |
1 |
Overgrazing |
10 |
9 |
10 |
8 |
37 |
Very high |
2 |
Crossbreeding between domestic
and Wild Water Buffalo |
9 |
8 |
9 |
9 |
35 |
Very high |
3 |
Flooding |
8 |
7 |
7 |
8 |
30 |
High |
4 |
Invasion by weeds |
7 |
8 |
7 |
6 |
28 |
High |
5 |
Intensive utilization of the
forest resources |
6 |
6 |
7 |
6 |
25 |
High |
6 |
Disease and parasite |
5 |
5 |
4 |
7 |
21 |
High |
7 |
Road traffic accident |
4 |
4 |
4 |
5 |
17 |
Medium |
8 |
Hunting and poaching |
2 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
11 |
Medium |
9 |
Poisoning |
2 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
7 |
Low |
10 |
Electrocution |
1 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
5 |
Low |
|
Total |
54 |
54 |
54 |
54 |
216 |
|
For
figures & images - - click here
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