Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2021 | 13(13): 19956–19963
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7446.13.13.19956-19963
#7446 | Received 17 May 2021 | Final received
07 September 2021 | Finally accepted 16 October 2021
Recovery of vulture population in
roosting and scavenging areas of Bastar and Bijapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Sushil Kumar Dutta 1, Muntaz Khan 2, P.R.S. Nagi
3, Santosh Durgam 4 & Surabhi Dutta 5
1,4 Department of Zoology, Govt. P.G.
College, Jagdalpur, Bastar,
Chhattisgarh 494001, India.
2 Department of Zoology, Kalahandi
University, Bhawanipatna, Kalahandi, Odisha 766001,
India.
3 Veterinary Hospital-Bastar, Bastar, Chhattisgarh
494223, India.
5 Institute for Excellence in
Higher Education, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462016, India.
1 dutta.sushil1962@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 soneyal@yahoo.co.in, 3 prsn67@gmail.com,
4 santoshdurgam1996@gmail.com, 5 dutta.surabhisur@gmail.com
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date
of publication: 26 November 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Dutta, S.K., M. Khan, P.R.S. Nagi, S. Durgam & S. Dutta (2021). Recovery of vulture population in
roosting and scavenging areas of Bastar and Bijapur, Chhattisgarh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(13): 19956–19963. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7446.13.13.19956-19963
Copyright: © Dutta et al. 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: No funding
was availed for this study and
publication from any funding agency/ies.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Dr. S.K. Dutta, Assistant Professor in the Department of
Zoology, Govt. P.G. College, Jagdalpur, Bastar, Chhattisgarh. His field of research interest is
animal diversity, ecology of amphibians and herpetofauna. In recent years, he
avidly explores the avifauna diversity in southern Chhattisgarh. Guide students
in their project works. Dr. M. Khan,
Assistant Professor in the Department of Zoology, Kalahandi University, Manikya Vihar, Bhawanipatna, Kalahandi, Odisha. Research interest is
Cetacean diversity, population, behaviour, ecology of
aquatic ecosystem, ecosystem services, Fish and Fisheries. Experienced in
Crocodiles, Marine turtles and Migratory birds research. Guide undergraduate
students in project work. Dr. P.R.S. Negi
is a Veterinary Surgeon in Bastar Veterinary
Hospital, Bastar, Chhattisgarh and dedicated to
animals health issues with a passion for wildlife. His research interest is
avifaunal diversity, captive/pet animal nutrition, health issues and monitoring
prevalence zoonotic diseases. Mr. S. Durgam is a student of M.
Sc Zoology from Govt. P.G. College, Jagdalpur, Bastar, Chhattisgarh and a resident of Bijapur
district. He pursued his research-intern in this work. Has developed research interest
to continue this study and survey on Vultures in Bijapur
District of Chhattisgarh. Ms. S. Dutta
is an undergraduate student from Institute for Excellence in Higher Education,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. She has keen passion and research aptitude for wildlife
and conservation. She monitors avifaunal diversity of Bastar
District.
Author contributions: SKD—supervised the study,
identification of roosting and scavenging areas of vultures, conducted the
vulture enumeration survey, collected information on daily movement of vultures
from various sources, photographic documentation, compilation of data and
drafted the research paper. MK—formulated
the survey plan, protocols, participated in the survey, correlated information
on vulture and habitat, analysis-interpretation of research data and finalized
the research paper. PRSN—participated in
the survey, photographic documentation, studied the bovine carrion in the study
area and gave vital inputs for this research paper. SaD—MSc student
participated in the survey to collect information on vultures from his
designated survey site, photographic documentation and enumerated vulture
numbers. SuD—graduate
student participated in the survey and collected information on vulture from
her designated survey site and enumerated vulture numbers.
Acknowledgements: Authors would like to acknowledge
their respective affiliated institutions and Heads for encouragement during
this research work. Authors are grateful for the help and information on
vulture movements by Forest Officials of Indravati Tiger Reserve, Bijapur. Special thanks to anonymous reviewers and editor
for giving valuable inputs.
Abstract: Chhattisgarh is home to seven of
the nine vulture species in India. One reason for this high vulture diversity
is the presence of large herds of bovines numbering over 11 million individuals
(ratio of human to bovine population is approximately 0.38), from which
carcasses are disposed off in the open for
scavengers. The late 1990s saw large scale decimation of vulture population,
and since then there have been few studies with no sighting estimates
available. In this study, concurrent
sighting records were collected from different locations of southern
Chhattisgarh and corroborated to develop conservative sighting estimates for
sympatric populations of Gyps bengalensis and Gyps
indicus. We present the first report on population recovery, with an
estimated 30–35 Gyps bengalensis &
20–25 Gyps indicus in/ around Rudraram
of Bijapur and 18 Gyps bengalensis
& five Gyps indicus at Jamguda village of Bastar. Krishna Swami Gutta hill is identified as a
nesting-roosting habitat for both species, for which six scavenging areas were
identified in Bastar and Bijapur
districts. The human/bovine population ratio for Bastar
is 0.4, similar to the state ratio, while in Bijapur
the ratio is 1.07, which justifies considering Bijapur
as a conservation refuge. The few vultures that survived the diclofenac
catastrophe in wild habitats most likely consumed wildlife carcasses that
sustained a residual population. In these areas, the age-old practise of
disposing off dead domesticated bovines away from settlements near reserve
forests may also have supported the recovery of vulture population.
Keywords: Bovines, concurrent, diclofenac,
diversity, Gyps bengalensis, Gyps indicus,
habitat, nesting-roosting, sighting, sympatric.
Introduction
Chhattisgarh is a land of dense
forests, hill ranges, valleys, sheer cliffs, vast grasslands, agricultural
land, waterfalls, and water-bodies. The estimated human population was 29
million for 2020 (Unique Identification Aadhar India updated 31 May 2019), with
a rural population of about 22 million (i.e., 77 %). People generally maintain
large herds of bovines totalling over 11
million animals (Livestock Census 2019) for agriculture and milk. The ratio of
human to bovine population for Chhattisgarh state is approximately 0.38. Cattle
are maintained largely on grazing, with basic shelters at night. Bovine death
rates are relatively high owing to various factors. Many domestic bovines turn
feral and enter forests, there are occasional outbreaks of disease since
widespread vaccination is impractical, there are few veterinary personnel, many
people prefer cheap traditional treatments over modern drugs, and most villages
are far from the reach of emergency veterinary help. Dead animals are disposed off in a designated communal place on the outskirts of Bastar and Bijapur villages,
where scavengers including vultures, feral carnivores and crows congregate.
Of the 22 vulture species
worldwide, nine are resident to India, and seven—Indian Scavenger Vulture Neophron percnopterus ginginianus Latham, 1790; Oriental White backed Vulture
Gyps bengalensis Gmelin,
1788; Indian Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus Scopoli,
1786; Indian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume, 1869; Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus
Linnaeus, 1766; and Black or King Vulture Sarcogyps
calvus Scopoli, 1786—have been reported from
Chhattisgarh (Ghosh et al. 2008). Information on vulture population and
diversity for Chhattisgarh is scant from the southern part of the state.
Before the introduction of
diclofenac (an anti-inflammatory drug) in India during the 1990s vultures were
recorded in large groups and were common sight in many localities, but the
following years witnessed a continuous and drastic decline in vulture
populations (Prakash et al. 2003). In 2004, Dr.
Lindsay Oaks and his team found that diclofenac causes fatal renal failure in
vultures. A simulation model demonstrated that if only 1 % of the carcasses
were contaminated by diclofenac, Indian vulture populations could decline 60–90
% annually, and it was reported that 10 % of carcasses in India were
contaminated (Green et al. 2004). In 2006, the Government of India
banned the manufacture, marketing and use of diclofenac. Following this ban, the declining population of Gyps bengalensis slowed, but infrequent use of diclofenac
continued (Prakash et al. 2012). Populations of White-rumped
Vulture, Long-billed Vulture, and Slender-billed Vulture crashed during the
mid-1990s throughout the Indian subcontinent, and the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed all of these species as ‘Critically
Endangered’ (Birdlife International 2021). This study estimates vulture
population in Bastar and Bijapur
district of Chhattisgarh and attempts to correlate contributory factors for
recovery post the decimation of the mid-1990s.
The White-rumped
Vulture is identifiable by a conspicuous white ruff at base of neck,
white inner thighs, a prominent broad white band on under-wings and 12 tail
feathers. Head and neck are destitute of feathers and tinged pink, and the bill
is dark at the tip and paler at the base with dark ceres.
The nostril openings are slit-like. In flight, the white under-wing coverts are
highly visible. The Long-billed Vultures is characterized by a narrow elongated
head, long naked neck and head covered with woolly down sporting a prominent
lanceolate ruff of feathers (longer in juvenile) at base of neck, and a long
yellowish bill. It sports 14 tail feathers. The upper wings are sandy brown and
darker head, have a buff ruff at the back of neck, feathers of back are sepia
brown. Gyps indicus is smaller in size than Gyps bengalesis. Both are sociable, nest and roost
communally on trees and cliffs (Grimmett et al. 2011;
Naroji 2011). Both the species are medium-sized Old
World vultures. White-rumped Vulture is native to
southern and southeastern Asia. Long-billed Vulture
is native to southern Asia.
Materials
and Methods
Opportunistic documentation of
vultures in 2011–2016 gave the impetus to undertake dedicated surveys from June
to October 2020, and in January 2021 in Bastar and Bijapur district of Chhattisgarh. Garmin GPSMap 78s was used to record the sighting position, Nikon Aculon A211 10–22 X 50 binoculars were used for spotting
and identification of species. A Canon EOS 70D with an EF300mm f/4L IS USM lens
and extender EF 1.4 X III were used for photographic documentation. The surveys
were conducted in designated dead animal disposal places near villages.
Concurrent sighting information was collected from different locations and
corroborated to evolve conservative sighting estimates for vultures.
Study area
Two southern districts of
Chhattisgarh; i.e., Bastar and Bijapur
were covered to record the population of vultures (Figure 1). Bastar district covers an area of 6,596.90 km². The
district is bounded on east by Odisha, north by Kondagaon
district, west by Narayanpur and Dantewada,
and south by Sukma. It is situated at a height of 606
m plateau from sea level. Kanger Ghati
National Park (also called Kanger Valley National
Park) is a protected area in the Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh.
Bijapur district covers an area of
6562.48 km2. The district is bounded on east by Dantewada
and Sukma districts, north by Narayanpur
district and Maharashtra, west by Maharashtra and south by Telangana. The major
river is Indravati and flows through Bastar, Dantewada and Bijapur uniting
with Godavari near Bhadrakali River. The district is
a rocky hilly terrain with an altitude ranging 177–599 m. District is covered
by rich and thick dense mixed forest interspersed by moist and intermediated
forest with diverse forest species. Indravati Tiger Reserve (Biosphere
reserve), lies within this district with high and rocky hills.
Observation
Sightings of vultures in Bastar
Bastar district has a human population
of 0.83 million as per 2011 census, and more than 70 % are tribal. The
domesticated livestock population (cows and buffalos) is 0.34 million as per
the 20th Livestock Census, 2019. The ratio of human population to
cattle population for Bastar district is
approximately 0.4. Bastar district is covered with
very and moderate dense forest of 3072.34 km2 or 47 % (Indian State
of Forest Report 2019).
The first and third author
sighted 18 Gyps bengalensis and five Gyps
indicus at Jamguda village of Bastar
district in 2011 during post-mortem of 12 bovines succumbed to sudden death,
and second sighting of one individual vulture gliding and soaring was recorded
during 2015. Vultures sighted in Bastar are both
resident and migrant. Sporadic records are available of their earlier sightings
with no estimates of vultures.
Sightings of vultures in Bijapur
Bijapur district has human population of
0.26 million (2011 census), and more than 70 % are tribal. The domesticated
livestock population (cows and buffalos) is 0.28 million as per the 20th
Livestock Census, 2019. The ratio of human population to cattle population for Bastar district is approximately 1. Moderate/dense forest
cover is 4,975 km2 or 76 % (Indian State of Forest Report 2019).
Frequent and regular sightings of White-Rumped
Vulture and Indian Vulture have been made in this area.
Occasional Sightings of vultures
in Dantewada
On 04 February 2020, one
migrating sub-adult Himalayan Griffon found in Geedam
(18.974°N, 81.399°E), a village in Dantewada
district. A group of crows attacked the vulture which succumbed to injuries
even after its treatment in the zoo.
Table 1 presents chronological
sighting records of vultures in Bastar and Bijapur (Image 4–8). Image 1, is GoogleEarth
Map showing the sighting locations of Gyps bengalensis
and Gyps indicus in Bastar and Bijapur districts. Figure 2, is a graphical presentation of
vulture population in various roosting and scavenging sites.
Discussion
Informal interviews with forest
department personnel and local people of rural villages near Rudraram and Cherpalli revealed
that vultures nest on Krishna Swami Gutta hill on the plain between the cliffs,
30–50 m above ground level. The hill is located south of Cherpalli
in Bijapur district. Consistent sightings of vultures
were documented in Bijapur district from March 2016,
with photographic documentation and GPS co-ordinates. Primary food source for
both species of vultures are carcasses of Wild Asian Buffalo, Indian Bison,
Nilgai, Blackbuck, Chausinga, Sambar, Chital, Indian
Muntjac, Indian Spotted Chevrotain, and Wild Boar in reserve forest (Wildlife
Officials, pers. comm. 27th July 2020). Both species of vultures in outskirts
of reserve forest feed on carcasses/carrion of domesticated bovines.
Estimates of vulture sightings
started from 2011 at Jamguda village, with 18 Gyps
bengalensis and five Gyps indicus. A
single individual was sighted gliding and soaring in 2015 at Bastar village of Bastar district
of southern Chhattisgarh. In 2016, four Gyps bengalensis
were sighted at Cherpalli in the Bijapur
district. In 2020, frequent sighting of vultures were encounter at various
locations in the Bijapur; 13 Gyps bengalensis and 12 Gyps indicus were sighted at Indravati
Tiger Reserve (Buffer Area). More and regular sightings were recorded in Rudraram; 30–35 individuals of Gyps bengalensis and 20–25 individuals of Gyps indicus
were sighted at Rudraram and Krishna Swami Gutta hill
often referred as nesting-roosting habitat was visited and confirmed. Both
species are now exploring six identified scavenging areas and possibly homing
range of both species covers Bastar and Bijapur district of southern Chhattisgarh. Rudraram and Krishna Swami Gutta hill are two hot spot for
these species. These observations are an indication of population recovery of
both Gyps bengalensis and Gyps indicus.
This sighting result as seen from the logarithmic trend lines in the graph is
in conformity with the surveys conducted in 2011 by Prakash and his research
team. The population of vulture species remains low, but the decline has slowed
and may even have reversed for Gyps bengalensis
in India (Prakash et al. 2012).
In recent times vultures have
been sighted in good numbers, often in the outskirts of remote villages
surrounded with dense trees, higher cliffs and flat-tops on higher rocky hills,
particularly near protected areas and far from urbanization. These habitats
must have served as last refuges for those few vultures that survived the
Diclofenac era. The factors contributing to the recovery of vulture population
in Bastar and Bijapur
district are:
a) Conducive habitable places for
resting and breeding in Bijapur district, is the
first and foremost important factor for survival and population recovery of
vultures. The numbers of vultures were so low that not a single sighting report
from this areas exists from 2005–2011 (Image 2 and 3 except for Gyps indicus
by BirdLife International).
b) Availability of adequate dead
wildlife carcasses in these wild habitats (Indravati Tiger Reserve and Kanger Valley Tiger Reserve) likely sustained the decimated
vulture population. Forest staff confirm that mortality of wild animals due to
natural factors in protected areas is sufficient to sustain present vulture
population. Carcasses of wild beasts and feral domesticated animals in the
protected areas and peripheral remote village areas are generally free of
Diclofenac contamination. This has ensured a safe and continuous source of
food, but vigilance against misuse of Diclofenac is necessary to ensure
conservation and recovery of vulture populations.
c) The ban on veterinary use of
Diclofenac (i.e., from May 2006 till date) by the Indian Government might had a
positive impact on recovery of vulture population, as witnessed in Bastar and Bijapur districts of
southern Chhattisgarh. Two years after the ban, 1,150 of 1,251 liver samples
from livestock carcasses collected across India between August 2007 and June
2008 were negative (Saini et al. 2012). Similarly, Cuthbert et al. (2011)
reported that the concentration of diclofenac before and soon after the ban was
10.8–10.7 %, but had dropped to 6.5% in
31 months after the implementation of the ban, leading to a drop in the
annual death rates of vultures from 80 % to 18 %.
d) Traditional practises of
disposing off dead bovines in designated communal sites in rural villages. An
average of 10 bovines (i.e., 2–3 per month) are disposed in each village during
the dry season, and 4–5 (i.e., 1–2 per month) in the wet and cold seasons. This
is an important contributing factor for recent sightings of vultures in Bastar and Bijapur district.
The southern Chhattisgarh region
is possibly a migratory route of vultures. On 04 February 2020, one migrating
sub-adult Himalayan Griffon was recorded in Geedam
village of Dantewada district. The repeated sightings
of vultures around the same area and their nesting in the Krishna Swami Gutta
hill is an opportunity to plan for the conservation of both species Gyps bengalensis and Gyps indicus vultures in India.
Suggestions
1. The traditional practise of
disposing off dead bovines free of diclofenac contamination should be promoted
in other designated communal sites instead of burying - to ensure a safe,
constant source of food enabling vulture populations to grow further.
2. Camera traps should be fixed
in nesting, roosting and scavenging areas to monitor inter and intra species
interactions.
3. Long-term vulture monitoring
projects should be undertaken; fitting of satellite telemeters on discrete
population in roosting and scavenging areas for understanding movements, other
parameters and physical challenges due to vast home range.
4. Krishna Swami Gutta hill must
be designated as a ‘Vulture Sanctuary’ to protect the nesting sites of these
vultures.
5. Vigilance and legal actions
should be adopted on any diclofenac use in veterinary. Sensitization of
chemists and drug associations, pharmacists, veterinary councils and farmers
should be undertaken along with understanding the implications of substitute of
diclofenac drug in veterinary use. Lead contamination is also a serious concern
for vultures and need to be monitored for future of vultures recovery.
Table 1. Chronological sighting
record of vultures in Bastar and Bijapur.
Date |
Time |
District |
Location |
Species wise number of individuals |
Position Landed / perched /
gliding / soaring |
|
Gyps bengalensis |
Gyps indicus |
|||||
31 Jul 2011 |
1208 |
Bastar |
Jamguda village 19.30333°N 81.96555°E |
18 |
5 |
Landed Perched |
?? 2015 |
1545 |
Bastar |
Bastar village |
1 |
0 |
Gliding and
soaring |
05 Mar 2016 |
1142 |
Bijapur |
Cherpalli 18.83246°N 80.43249°E |
4 |
0 |
Gliding and
soaring |
06 Jun 2020 |
1128 |
Bijapur |
Indravati
Tiger Reserve, 18.81324°N 80.47578°E |
13 |
12 |
Landed |
12 Jun 2020 |
1103 1630 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83700°N 80.41471°E |
30–35 3–4 |
20–25 1–2 |
Landed Perched |
13 Jun 2020 |
1115 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83702°N 80.41475°E |
18–20 |
15–17 |
Landed |
14 Jun 2020 |
1600 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83758°N 80.41465°E |
4–5 |
2 |
Gliding and
soaring |
30 Jun 2020 |
1428 |
Bijapur |
Krishna
Swami Gutta hill 18.79739°N 80.41125°E |
6–7 |
3 |
Gliding and
soaring |
22 Jul 2020 |
0921 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83681°N 80.41521°E |
2 |
0 |
Landed |
24 Aug 2020 |
1122 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83695°N 80.41392°E |
10–12 |
0 |
Landed and
perched |
03 Sep 2020 |
0928 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83682°N 80.41521°E |
30–31 |
18–20 |
Landed |
01 Oct 2020 |
1015 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83711°N 80.41482°E |
17–19 |
10–12 |
Landed |
12 Jan 2021 |
1000 |
Bijapur |
Rudraram 18.83711°N 80.41482°E |
13 |
4 |
Landed Perched |
For
figures & images - - click here
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