Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2022 | 14(9): 21769–21775
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7011.14.9.21769-21775
#7011 | Received 18 December 2020 | Final received 29 June
2022 | Finally accepted 13 July 2022
Conservation
of Tiger Panthera tigris in Nepal: a review of
current efforts and challenges
Pramod
Ghimire
Agriculture
and Forestry University Faculty of Forestry, Hetauda,
Bagmati Province, Nepal.
Abstract:
The Tiger Panthera tigris
is one of the most charismatic and well known Asian big cats. In the lowlands
of Nepal, Tigers along with the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis
and the Asiatic Elephant Elephas maximus serve as flagship species
gathering global conservation attention. Current surveys estimate a population
of 235 tigers in Nepal. Tigers in Nepal are strictly protected in five
protected areas located in the lowlands and their adjoining forest areas which
cover 7,668.20 km2. However, over the last century, tiger population
and their distribution range drastically declined with the species heading
towards extinction. The long-term survival of this charismatic species is
challenging largely due to the loss and fragmentation of habitat, climate
change, increasing human-wildlife interface and poaching for illegal trade of
body parts. In response to this, the Government of Nepal along with
conservation agencies and local communities have proceeded to execute various
conservation initiatives both at national and international level. This paper
tries to scrutinize the current status of tiger population, conservation
efforts, and existing challenges to conserve tiger species in Nepal.
Keywords:
Asian big cat, charismatic species, climate change, conservation efforts, flagship
species, fragmentation of habitat, illegal trade, poaching, population.
Editor:
Priya Davidar, Sigur
Nature Trust, Nilgiris, India. Date
of publication: 26 September 2022 (online & print)
Citation:
Ghimire, P. (2022). Conservation of Tiger Panthera
tigris in Nepal: a review of current efforts and
challenges. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 14(7): 21769–21775.
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7011.14.9.21769-21775
Copyright:
© Ghimire 2022. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License. JoTT
allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any
medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of
publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author
declares no competing interests.
Author details: Pramod
Ghimire (a PhD scholar) is highly motivated forestry scientist with 10+ years
of experience in forestry research and development. He is currently serving as Assistant
Professor at Agriculture and Forestry University, Faculty of Forestry, Hetauda, Nepal. Formerly, he has also served as a Ranger at
Department of Forest, Ministry of Forest and Environment, Government of Nepal.
Acknowledgements: The author
also acknowledges feedback from the anonymous referees and the editor of this
journal, which helped improve the quality of the manuscript.
INTRODUCTION
The Tiger Panthera tigris
is a keystone species, crucial in maintaining the integrity of the ecosystems
in which it thrives. It is one of the biggest and most fearsome predators in
the world (Dhakal et al. 2014; DNPWC 2018).
Historically, Tigers existed as nine subspecies, three of which, i.e., the
Javan Tiger Panthera tigris sondaica,
the Caspian Tiger P. t. virgat), and the Bali
Tiger P. t. balica, are now considered extinct
and a fourth, the South-China Tiger P. t. amoyensis
is most likely extinct in the wild. Today the existing subspecies include the
Bengal Tiger P. t. tigris, Indochinese Tiger P.
t. corbetti, Sumatran Tiger P. t. sumatrae, Siberian Tiger P. t. altaica,
and the Malayan Tiger P. t. jacksoni (Goodrich
et al. 2015). However, a recent taxonomic revision by the IUCN Cat Specialist
Group grouped the extant tigers into two sub species; Panthera tigris tigris distributed in
mainland Asia, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Russia, Indochina, and
the Malay Peninsula and Panthera tigris sondaica found in Sumatra and formerly Java and Bali
(Kitchener et al. 2017).
Tigers occupy a variety of different habitats which
include the tropical rainforests of Sumatra, mangrove swamps of the Sunderbans of Bangladesh and western India, tropical
forests and grasslands of Nepal and India, forests of Bhutan and the temperate
regions of eastern Russia (GTIS 2010; DNPWC 2016, 2018) thus displaying
ubiquity and adaptability across a wide range of habitats. That being said,
tropical forests are considered to be the main habitat for tigers across their
entire range. Just over a century ago, there were as many as 100,000 tigers
living in the wild. At present, however, there are less than 5,000 wild tigers
that remain (Table 1) and their range has reduced by 93% from 1990s to 2000s (Dinerstein et al. 2007; GTF 2016). Currently, suitable
habitat for wild tigers covers about 1.2 million km2 which has been
categorized to include 76 tiger conservation landscapes (TCLs) across 13 tiger
range countries (TRCs): Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam (GTIS
2010).
The Bengal Tiger is the most abundant sub-species
native to the Indian subcontinent including India, Nepal Bangladesh, Bhutan,
and western Myanmar. The population estimate of this sub-species currently
holds at approximately 3,389 individuals (Table 1). In Nepal, tigers are
distributed among five protected areas across the Terai and Churia
habitats within the Terai Arc Landscape (Dhakal et
al. 2014; DNPWC 2018). The tiger census conducted in 2018 estimates a
population of 235 adult tigers in Nepal (DNPWC 2018). Wild Tiger populations
continue to decline due to habitat loss and degradation, prey depletion,
retaliatory killing of tigers and poaching for illegal trade (Ripple et al.
2014). Therefore, to conserve this species, in 2010, at the Tiger Summit in St.
Petersburg, Russia, Nepal and 12 other countries with wild tiger populations
committed to double their wild tiger numbers (TX2 goal) by 2022 (GTF 2016).
Owing to this, various conservation initiatives were undertaken both at
national and international level which resulted in an increase in tiger
population especially in Indian subcontinent. Yet, the long-term survival of
this endangered wildlife species remains a challenging task. It is crucial now
more than ever, for Nepal to execute pertinent actions and strategies for the
long-term conservation of this species. In this context, the current paper
intends to present the current status and distribution of tiger population in
Nepal. Moreover, this paper also strives to illustrate the conservation efforts
and its related challenges to conserve this iconic species in a national
context.
Tiger
population status and tiger habitats in Nepal
Tigers in Nepal are distributed across the lowlands of
Terai and Churia habitats within the Terai Arc
Landscape (TAL). At present, the tiger distribution in Nepal is more or less
restricted to five protected areas of the TAL and their adjoining forest
areas (Figure 1) in three isolated sub-populations, viz.: i)
Parsa-Chitwan Complex (Barandabhar
corridor and protected forest; Parsa National Park
(PNP) and Chitwan National Park (CNP)); ii) Banke-Bardia
Complex (Kamdi corridor, Karnali
corridor, Khata corridor and protected forest; Banke National Park (BaNP) and Bardia National Park (BNP)); and iii) Kailali-Kanchanpur Complex (Basanta
corridor and Protected forest, Laljhadi-Mohana
corridor and Protected forest, Brahmadev corridor and
Shuklaphanta National Park (ShNP)
(DNPWC 2018).
The tiger census of 1995/1996 estimated a total of 93
to 97 breeding adult tigers in Nepal (DNPWC 2008). In the 1999/2000 census the
population was estimated around 98 to 123 breeding adults showing some growth
from the previous count (DNPWC 2008). But in 2007, the population was estimated
at around 105 to 123 individuals showing no signs of growth, and the cause was
attributed to increased poaching (DNPWC 2008; NTRP 2010). It should be,
however, noted that early tiger estimates were based largely on pugmark projection
methods, which have been proven to be unreliable surveys (Karanth
et al. 2003). But from 2009, tiger censuses have been based on standardized,
science-based methods that use systematic camera trapping and transect surveys
(DNPWC 2016). Thus the surveys conducted from 2009
onwards show an increase in tiger numbers in all protected areas, i.e., the
population increased from 121 individuals in 2009 to 198 individuals in 2013 (Dhakal et al. 2014). The census of 2018 estimated that of
the 235 individual tigers, 18 (16–24) tigers distributed in PNP and adjoining
forests, 93 (89–102) tigers in CNP and adjoining forests, 21 (18–30) tigers in BaNP and adjoining forests, 87 (82–97) tigers in BNP and
adjoining forests, and 16 (15–21) tigers in ShNP and
adjoining forests (DNPWC 2018). The protected areas hosting tigers is presented
in Table 2 along with their status. A national comparison indicates an
approximate increase in the national tiger population by 19%, within the
four-year period and a 94% increase within a period of nine years.
The largest population lives in Parsa-Chitwan Complex encompassing an area of
2,595 km2 of prime lowland forest. Out of total habitat area, Parsa-Chitwan Complex encompasses 36.60% and Banke-Bardia complex and Suklaphanta
Complex covers 41.60 % and 21.80 %, respectively (Table 2). Earlier information
on tiger distribution in Nepal has not been reported at elevations higher than
the Siwalik Hills (about 1,500 m). But recently, on 13 April 2020, a tiger was
spotted at an elevation of 2,500 m in the Mahabharat range of Dadeldhura (DFO 2020). This is the first ever recorded
sighting of a tiger at such altitudes. It was sighted by a camera trap which
was set up by the Division Forest Office to track the presence of wildlife
movement in the area. Reports such as this opens up new avenues for research in
Nepal. Furthermore, a tiger was recently captured at an elevation of 3,165 m by
a camera trap in the mountain forests of Ilam
district in eastern Nepal, the highest proven
sighting of a big cat ever in Nepal (DNPWC 2020). This finding provides
the encouragement for conservation officials to continue their determined
efforts to save the iconic animal which is endangered globally.
Conservation
efforts
Nepal’s effort to strengthen tiger conservation
efforts dates back to 1970s when a tiger ecology project was launched in
Chitwan in 1972 (McDougal 1977; Smith 1993). Following the endorsement of
National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act (NPWCA) and establishment of
Chitwan National Park in 1973 as the first national park of Nepal was a
milestone in the history of wildlife conservation in Nepal which was well
backed up by establishing Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation in 1980 (DNPWC 2018). After that, four more national parks, i.e. BNP, ShNP, PNP, and BaNP were set up to protect tigers and their habitats
(DNPWC 2016, 2018). Since then, placing strong anti-poaching measures in the
protected areas, managing habitats and providing compensation for human loss
has led to the recovery of wild tiger populations.
To address the growing issue of conflict between
national parks and people, the Government of Nepal in 1996 introduced a
conciliatory approach called as the Buffer Zone Management System (MoFSC 1996; Ghimire 2019). They aimed to establish buffer
zones around the country’s national parks and wildlife reserves with the
objective of making local communities self-reliant on forest products through
community forestry, while also creating other livelihood opportunities for them
(MoFSC 1996; Dhakal et al.
2014; Bhattarai et al. 2019). In addition, a legal provision was made to plow back a major slice of the revenue earned as a
consequence of buffer zone development activities (MoFSC
1996). Over the time, the approach employed for wildlife conservation changed
from protective to participatory and from species to landscape conservation
(Ghimire 2019). In response to this, the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) programme
was initiated in 2001 specially to protect megafauna like tigers, rhinos and
elephants. This programme is recognized by the Governments of both Nepal and
India. The TAL covers an area of 51,002 km2 which extends from
Nepal’s Bagmati River in the east to India’s Yamuna River in the west. This landscape is
identified as prime habitat of tiger population in Nepal (MoFSC
2015).
Nepal also set up strong legal provisions to control
wildlife crimes particularly for protected mammals like tigers, rhinos,
elephants, and snow leopards. In Nepal, tigers are strictly protected under the
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act.
For offenders and accomplices convicted of poaching and illegal trade of
tiger and its body parts the Wildlife Conservation Act provisions a fine
ranging from NPR 500,000 to NPR 1,500,000, or 5 to 15 years of imprisonment, or
both (GoN 1973). Nepal, is one of the 13 countries,
that committed to the St. Petersburg Declaration of 2010 to double the tiger
population by 2022 (GTIS 2010). To support this commitment the Government of
Nepal also implemented a National Tiger Recovery Program 2010 under the
framework of the Global Tiger Recovery Program (2010–2022) (Dhakal
et al. 2014; DNPWC 2018). In addition, frameworks such as Nepal Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan (2014–2020), Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) Strategy and
Action Plan (2015–2025), Tiger Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2016–2020),
Forest Policy 2019 and Forest Act 2019 were developed and implemented to serve
as a benchmark for tackling the priority threats to the nation’s mega fauna
like the tiger (DNPWC 2016; MoFE 2019). Furthermore,
seven additional forest habitat corridors (Table 3) covering area 2,157 km2
were declared between the years 2010 and 2020 to facilitate movement and
dispersal of wildlife, especially tigers, rhinoceros, and elephants (MoFSC 2015; Wegge et al. 2018).
The Government of Nepal has also been taking proactive actions in and around
protected areas including buffer zones to engage with communities and organize community based initiatives. Altogether 331 community-based
anti-poaching units (CBAPUs) have been established since 2015 in different
parts of the country (DNPWC 2018). With all these efforts, Nepal is set to
become the first country to double its tiger population by 2022 with an
impressive population of 235 individuals. The Government of Nepal is at the
forefront in improving habitats, managing critical transboundary linkages,
adopting latest science and technology in research, combating wildlife crime
and supporting the local communities to cope with tiger conflict.
Conservation
challenges and threats
Despite conservation measures, tigers are highly
threatened and still face the threat of extinction. Of the two sub-species only
Panthera tigris tigris
is reported to exist today and is ‘Endangered’ while Panthera tigris sondaica is considered
extinct (Dhakal at al. 2014; Goodrich et al. 2015;
Kitchener et al. 2017). Global tiger populations are under threat from habitat
degradation, prey depletion, and poaching. Some of the major impediments to
effectively conserve tigers in Nepal can be summarize as below:
Habitat degradation and fragmentation
Depletion of prey species
Poaching and illegal trade of tiger body parts
Human-tiger conflict
Spread of invasive/alien species like Mikania
micrantha, Lantana camara, Chromolaena
odorata in tiger prey habitat particularly in PNP, CNP, and BNP.
Climate change impacts
Rapidly growing
human population coupled with unsustainable agricultural practices not only
degrade prime tiger habitat but also relegated the alarmingly dwindled tiger
population to the confines of the wildlife habitats and adjoining forests.
Settlements and linear infrastructure projects such as roads, railroads,
transmission lines, irrigation canals, etc. are roughly planned inside
protected areas or corridors which are responsible for fragmentation and degradation
of tiger habitat in the country. The East-West highway passes through all
five tiger bearing PAs of Nepal, which has resulted in the road kill of
wildlife including tigers (DNPWC 2018; Bhattarai & Kindlmann
2018; Bhandari et al. 2019). Consequently, degradation and loss of tiger
habitat resulted in low prey availability in both inside and outside PAs due to
increased competition for food. On the other hand, continued illegal hunting
outside PAs also contributes towards the depletion of natural prey-base.
Moreover, collection of fodder, firewood, grasses from the forests,
grazing, forest fire, and alien invasive species are major driving
factors that lead to the degradation of tiger habitat. Similarly, floods,
river cutting and
pollution are other factors (Bhattarai
& Kindlmann, 2018). Moreover, with the increase in number the
problem of carrying capacity assessment is another growing issue for tiger
conservation in Nepal (Bhandari et al. 2019).
Poaching and illegal trade of tigers and their body parts
are a major threat to tiger populations globally. As Nepal is one of the countries that hosts a
large wild tiger populations, it considered both a
source and a transit point for illegal trade (Acharya 2003; DNPWC 2018).
Despite the country’s commitment to curb wildlife crime together with the
success it achieved over the years in minimizing poaching and illegal trade, it
still faces the problem of opportunistic poaching. In the past decade, skin
from 49 tigers and 204 kg of tiger bones was seized, while 2,258 people were
arrested in connection with their involvement in wildlife-related crime in the
country (DNPWC 2018). Therefore, poaching and trade continues to be recognized
as a major threat, and combatting wildlife crime remains a priority. Furthermore,
human-wildlife interface (like livestock depredation and human attack) has
become one of the major threats to wildlife conservation. Conserving mega fauna
like tigers in a human dominated landscape has become a challenging job. Today,
human-tiger incidents have played a significant role in declining
tiger populations globally (Gurung et al. 2008; Bhattarai et al. 2019). The
trend of human casualties has increased from an average of 1 to 7 persons per
year from 1998 to 2006 (Gurung et al. 2008). Despite legal provision of a hefty fine or a
sentence of up to 15 years in jail, or both, for killing a tiger and a
compensation scheme for crop or livestock depredation, affected locals are
sometimes known to resort to retaliatory killings. Habitat shrinkage, increasing
human interface along the park boundaries, and increasing dependence on park/
reserves for forest resources are some of the major underlying causes of
human-tiger interface.
Likewise, invasive-alien plant species such as Mikania
micrantha, Chromolaena odorata, and Lantana
camera in Parsa and Chitwan and Lantana camara
in Bardia have heavily encroached most of potential
tiger habitats and community forests in the buffer zones (DNPWC 2008; 2016).
Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is
prevalent in all lowland lakes, consequently this encourages siltation and dries up
wetlands. Climate change is emerging as one of the prominent threats to
biodiversity globally. Although information regarding the direct impact of
climate change on wildlife species in the country is limited. However, climate
change induced hazards including torrential precipitation, flash floods,
prolonged droughts and frequent forest fires are observed to be major issues
for tigers and their prey species (Thapa & Killy
2016; DNPWC 2018).
In spite of Nepal’s favourable position on the road to
achieving the TX2 goal and even with the upward growth rate of the global tiger
population (after decades of constant decline), policy makers and experts at
the third stock-talking conference held in Delhi in January
2019 (MoEFCC 2019) have pointed out that the goal of
doubling the global tiger population by 2022 may be unrealistic. In 2010,
global tiger population was pegged at 3,220 and at the halfway point in the
timeline, i.e., 2016, it only reached 3890, below than the expected rate of
increase (MoEFCC 2019). Therefore, the need for a
differential approach to reach the TX2 goal was emphasized. Tiger and prey
recovery is considered to be the main issue (globally) whereas in southern Asia, managing
habitats outside the critical core tiger habitat through landscape approach,
i.e., safeguarding tiger corridors and community engagement to enhance
livelihood opportunities for people is emerging as an area of focus. On that account, an essential challenge now
lies in setting appropriate priorities to respond to the issue at hand.
CONCLUSION
Nepal has been a leader in efforts to conserve tigers
within its own territory and has won widespread praise from the international
arena as well. The result shows the country is close to doubling its tiger
population and achieving the global commitment made in the 2010 St. Petersburg
Summit in Russia. The success in tiger conservation is the result of the
concerted efforts of government agencies, conservation organisations, donors
and community-based organisations. The conservation policies and strategies
area well implemented. This is evident when we work together, we can save the
planet’s wildlife, even species facing extinction. Yet, conservation in an ever changing world that demands long term persistent
efforts. Despite successes, threats to tigers from poaching, human-tiger
interface, climate change, habitat degradation and depletion of prey base due
to unplanned developmental activities persist even today. Thus, learning from
past failures, and reflecting on current success actions and strategies need to
be adapted for the long-term survival of this valuable species. More than that,
there is a need for massive public awareness about wildlife protection and
involvement of local community in conservation strategies.
Table
1. Current status of Tiger in tiger range countries.
|
Country |
Year
2010 |
Year
2015 |
Year
2018 |
1 |
Nepal |
155 |
198 |
235 |
2 |
India |
1411 |
2246 |
2967 |
3 |
Bangladesh |
440 |
106 |
121 |
4 |
Bhutan
|
75 |
103 |
103 |
5 |
Myanmar |
85 |
85 |
NA |
6 |
China |
45 |
45 |
34 |
7 |
Lao
PDR |
17 |
17 |
2 |
8 |
Thailand |
200 |
200 |
189 |
9 |
Vietnam |
10 |
10 |
<5 |
10 |
Cambodia |
20 |
20 |
0 |
11 |
Indonesia |
325 |
325 |
371 |
12 |
Malaysia |
500 |
500 |
250 |
13 |
Russia |
360 |
360 |
433 |
|
Total
Population |
3643 |
4215 |
4710 |
NA—Not
available. Source: GTF 2016; Wang et al. 2016; Aziz at al. 2017; DNPWC 2018; Jhala et al. 2019.
Table
2. The tiger bearing protected areas and tiger population.
Protected
areas |
Core
area (Km2) |
Buffer
zone area (Km2) |
Tiger
population status |
||
2009 |
2013 |
2018 |
|||
PNP |
627.39 |
285.30 |
4 |
7 |
18 |
CNP |
952.63 |
729.37 |
91 |
120 |
93 |
BaNP |
550 |
343 |
- |
4 |
21 |
BNP |
968 |
507 |
18 |
50 |
87 |
ShNP |
305 |
243.5 |
8 |
17 |
16 |
Total |
|
|
121 |
198 |
235 |
Table
3. Forest habitat corridors in Nepal.
|
Name
of Forest Corridors |
Area
covered |
||
Forest
corridor (Km2) |
Impact
zone (Km2) |
Total (Km2) |
||
1. |
Barandabhar Corridor and
Protected Forest |
148 |
113 |
261 |
2. |
Kamdi Corridor |
291 |
159 |
450 |
3.
|
Karnali Corridor |
149 |
78 |
227 |
4.
|
Khata Corridor
and Protected Forest |
74 |
128 |
202 |
5. |
Basanta Corridor
and Protected Forest |
181 |
471 |
652 |
6.
|
Laljhadi-Mohana
Corridor and Protected Forest |
202 |
153 |
355 |
7. |
Brahmadev Corridor |
138 |
10 |
148 |
|
Total |
1045 |
1112 |
2157 |
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