Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2021 | 13(8): 19002–19010
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6296.13.8.19002-19010
#6296 | Received 12 June 2020 | Final
received 17 June 2021 | Finally accepted 27 June 2021
Seasonal prey availability and
diet composition of Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat Scotophilus
kuhlii Leach, 1821
Shani Kumar Bhartiy
1 & Vadamalai Elangovan 2
1,2 Department of Zoology, Babasaheb Bhimaro Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025,
India.
1 shanikumarbhartiy@gmail.com (corresponding
author), 2 elango70@yahoo.com
Editor: C. Srinivasulu,
Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. Date of
publication: 26 July 2021 (online & print)
Citation: Bhartiy,
S.K. & V. Elangovan (2021). Seasonal prey availability and
diet composition of Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat Scotophilus
kuhlii Leach, 1821. Journal of Threatened Taxa 13(8): 19002–19010. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6296.13.8.19002-19010
Copyright: © Bhartiy
& Elangovan 2021. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The financial assistance of Science and Engineering Research
Board, Department of Science
and Technology, New Delhi through
a major research project (No. EEQ/2018/000104) to VE
is acknowledged.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Shani Kumar Bhartiy has completed his PhD on “Effect of urbanization of roosting, feeding
and reproductive behaviour of Asiatic Lesser Yellow
Bat, Scotophilus kuhlii” and
currently working on roosting ecology of insectivorous bats. V. Elanovan is Professor in the Department of Zoology,
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh and working on behavioural ecology of bats for the last two decades. VE is
currently working on “conventional and alternative reproductive strategies of
Indian Flying Fox”.
Author contributions: SKB performed the experimental
work and data analysis and drafted the manuscript. VE designed the experiment
and edited the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: We thank the Archaeological
Survey of India for permitting us to conduct the field survey in old monuments
of Uttar Pradesh.
Abstract: Diet is an important factor in
understanding bat ecology and conservation. This study assessed seasonal prey availability and diet
composition of the Asiatic Lesser Yellow House Bat Scotophilus
kuhlii in various districts of Uttar Pradesh
between January 2016 to December 2018. Fecal and
insect samples were collected seasonally using sweep nets between 1800 and 1900
h. From each location 20 fecal pellets were selected
for analysis and searched for taxonomically recognizable remnants. The analysis
revealed that S. kuhlii fed on Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera,
Isoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Blattodae,
Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera, identified from legs, antennae and wings/elytra in fecal pellets. Seasonal variation in the presence of
isolated insect remnants and insect abundance at foraging grounds was observed.
Thus S. kuhlii is a voracious feeder and plays
an important role as a pest control agent.
Keywords: Food item, insect abundance,
remnants, season.
INTRODUCTION
Foraging behavior
has a vital role in evolutionary biology and ecology, with major contributions
to survival, growth and reproductive success (Kramer 2001). Bats are nocturnal
animals with many endangered and declining species throughout the world (Voigt
et al. 2016). They are important components of ecosystems, acting as predators
and seed dispersing agents (Kalka & Kalko 2006;
Tang et al. 2008). Insectivorous bats are usually classified according
to their foraging strategy as aerial hawkers, or as foliage gleaners such as Myotis
nattereri. Barbastella barbastellus (Findley 1993; Patterson et al. 2003).
Several kinds of nocturnal insects, such as moths, mantids, lacewings,
orthopterans, and beetles, have evolved tympanic organs that are sensitive to
bat echolocation calls (Fenton et al. 1998).
One of the important factors in
understanding bat ecology and conservation is diet. Insect abundance can change
due to factors such as climate changes and variation in the availability of
food resources in surrounding habitats (Wolda 1988),
which ultimately effects diversity and abundance of bat food resources (Hails
1982; Janzen & Pond 1975; Kingslover 1989; Tulp & Schekkerman 2008).
Several studies have reported that tropical insects undergo seasonal changes in
abundance, at least for those parts of the tropics where seasons are alternate
(Dobzhansky & Pavan 1950; Owen & Chanter 1970, 1972; Janzen & Pond
1975; Wolda 1978). Whitaker (1995) suggested that
insectivorous bats generally select among available food, but become more
opportunistic when food becomes limited.
Michal et al.
(2012) reported that Myotis nattereri consumed
food highest in late summer and early autumn and lowest in cold weather. The
most common insect orders consumed by bats are Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Isoptera (Verts et al. 1999; Pavey et al. 2001). Bats have
several morphological adaptations that allow them to capture and handle prey in
flight and their teeth are also a more important component for chewing (Evans
& Samson 1998). While wing morphology helps the bats to do various maneuvers during flight (Norberg & Rayner 1987) direct
observation of foraging behaviour of insectivorous bats typically is not
possible hence most authors have necessarily used fecal
pellet analyses to quantify diet compositions (Whitaker et al. 1977). However,
a thorough understanding of prey use among insectivorous bats requires
knowledge of prey availability in surrounding habitats. Understanding the
foraging ecology of insectivorous bats is further hindered by limited knowledge
of how diet varies within species.
Diet composition is influenced by
food availability, seasonal variations, and strategies with which a particular
bat species responds to these changes (Swift & Racey
1983; Shiel et al. 1991; Catto
et al. 1994). Insectivorous bats may indicate flexible exploitation of
available food resources in the diet composition, foraging occasionally and
less selective feeding (Belwood & Fenton 1976;
Swift et al. 1985; Rydell 1986; Hoare 1991). Among the prey categories, they
consume large quantities of lepidopterans (moths), coleopterans (beetles),
dipterans (flies), homopterans (cicadas, leafhoppers), and hemipterans (true
bugs) (Anthony & Kunz 1977; Ross 1961; Leelapaibul
et al. 2005) which are mostly pests of agro crops
(Harris 1970). Bats are therefore known as ravenous feeders of nocturnal
insects which damage a large number of crops annually (Harris 1970).
Several earlier studies reported
that Scotophilus kuhlii
foraged predominately in open environments, as well as at the edge of the
cluttered environments such as the crowns of trees within the urban
environment, around street lights, agriculture fields, and over water bodies
(Zhu et al. 2012). It echolocates at a frequency of 45.72 kHz, can detect prey
over long distances in open habitats, and may catch relatively large prey (Zhu
et al. 2012). Its echolocation calls were relatively broadband
frequency-modulated with the fourth harmonic up to 200 kHz during the flight (Neuweiler 1984). Thus we predicted the diet composition of S.
kuhlii varied with season. Therefore, the main
aim of this study was to access the seasonal food preference and diet
composition of S. kuhlii in Uttar Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study was carried out in
various districts of Uttar Pradesh between January 2016 and December 2018. The
geographical area of the state is 240,928 km2 which constitutes 7.3%
of the total area of the country. The climate of Uttar Pradesh is characterized
by temperature ranging from 5ºC in winter to 45ºC in
summer. Annual rainfall varies from 1,000 mm to 1,200 mm of which about 90%
occurs from June to September which is the south-west monsoon. India is home to
an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the
south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions
receive sustained snowfall in the winter.
Sample collection
The fecal
pellets were collected seasonally by spreading polythene sheets (10 x 14 cm) on
the attic floor and in front of the roost entrance at 216 roosts in 24
districts (Figure 1). Fecal pellets from these roosts
were collected in the summer months (March–June), monsoon (July–October) and
winter (November–February). Sampling was performed in the morning after the
bats returned to the roost, at about one-month interval at various roosting
sites of Uttar Pradesh, which is the biggest state of India. Simultaneously, we
collected insects from foraging grounds surrounding the roosting sites using
sweep nets (radius 20 cm) from 1800 to 1900 h in the evenings where possible.
All investigated roosts were located near man-made structures including
monuments, abandoned buildings, temples, and trees where bats hunted for prey.
From each location, average one gram pellets approximately 25 to 50 pellets
were collected, and among them, only 20 pellets were taken at random and analyzed monthly.
Pellet analysis
We collected fresh guano pellets
only, and thus the date of collection reflected recent diets. Fecal pellets were soaked in distilled water, then
completely dissected with a needle, forceps, and tweezers and searched for
recognizable remnants. The analysis was done using a light microscope (BR
BIOCHAM, 1402923) with 10x magnification. The identification of remnants was
done examining legs, antennae, and wings or elytra. Members of Arthropoda were
identified to the order as well as family level using published identification
guides and keys (Mroczkowski 1955; Trojan 1957; Pławilszczikow 1972; Smreczyński
1976; Stebnicka 1978; Trautner
& Gaigenmuller 1987; Prashad
2010). We made permanent slides of identified insect parts and matched the
remnants for confirming order and families. The remaining pellets were kept at
-4 ºC for further analysis. Results are expressed in terms of
relative frequency of occurrence;
Percentage frequency (%F): This
is the number of occurrences of the category, divided by the number of samples analyzed, multiplied by 100. Whereas for percentage volume
(%V): Sum of individual volume divide by total volume of the sample multiplied
by 100 following the formulae given by Whitaker (1988). The food items were
categorized into three classes based on the frequency of remnants: basic food (>20%),
constant food (5–20%), chance food (<5%) as described by Ramanujam & Verzhutskii
(2004). Insect availability was categorized based on the total captured insects
a month, namely, absent (0), rare (<5), common (5 to 10) and abundant
(>10). Kruskal Wallis H test (KW) was applied to determine diet variation
and seasonal variation based on the frequency of each dietary item, at p
<0.05 significance level (SPSS, 21).
RESULTS
Seasonal food preference by S.
kuhlii
A total of 11 families of insects
were identified corresponding to nine insect orders based on the leg, antenna,
and wing or elytral fragments (Table 1). About 3,048 isolated remnants from a
total of 720 pellets were analyzed. A total of 26.83%
of remnants could be identified to order and family level; the remaining 73.5%
remnants were unidentified.
Insect orders consumed by S. kuhlii
The percentage frequency of
identified remnants of prey items consumed by S. kuhlii
during summer, showed that Order Coleoptera (39%), Diptera (25%), and Lepidoptera (23%) formed basic food,
followed by Orthoptera (19%), Isoptera (14%),
Hemiptera (11%), Hymenoptera (11%), Odonata (5.8%), and Blattodea
(7.8%) forming the constant food of total frequency in the sample, while no
chance food items were encountered in the fecal
pellets in summer (Figure 2). Followed by monsoon, two most important insect
orders such as Lepidoptera (47%). Coleoptera (43%),
Orthoptera (27%), and Diptera (21%) were forming the
basic food of the total frequency of the sample. While Hymenoptera (13.5%), Isoptera (10%), and Hemiptera (10%) were forming the
constant food and Odonata (6.7%) and Blattodae (1.5%)
formed the chance food of the total frequency in the sample (Figure 2). In
winter, Coleoptera (30%) and Hemiptera (25%) were
forming the basic food of the total frequency of consumed diet in the sample.
Orders Diptera (5.1%), Orthoptera (8.3%), and
Lepidoptera (14%) were forming the constant food, and, Hymenoptera (2.6%), Isoptera (1.5%), and Odonata (1.5%) formed the chance food
of the total frequency of consumed diet in the sample (Figure 2).
The percentage volume of remnants
of prey items consumed by S. kuhlii during the
summer showed that the orders Coleoptera (11%), Diptera (6.3%), Lepidoptera (5.632%), Orthoptera (5.3%), Isoptera (3.5%), Hemiptera (2.8%), Hymenoptera (2.5%), Blattodea (2.3%), and Odonata (1.3%) total percentage
volume in the summer sample (Figure 4). Monsoons, followed by Coleoptera (10%), Lepidoptera (9.8%), Orthoptera (5.9%), Diptera (5.1%), Hemiptera (2.9%), Hymenoptera (2.7%), Isoptera (2.3%), Odonata (1.7%) Hymenoptera (2.7%), and Blattodea (0.28%) total percentage volume in the monsoon
sample (Figure 4). In winter, Coleoptera (7.3%),
Hemiptera (4.6%), Lepidoptera (2.9%), Orthoptera (1.8%), Odonata (1.4%), Diptera (0.75%), Hymenoptera (0.46%), and Isoptera (0.37%) the total percentage volume in the winter
samples, consumed by S. kuhlii (Figure 4).
Insect families consumed by S.
kuhlii
The percent frequency of insect
families consumed by S. kuhlii, such as
Gryllidae (25.18%) formed basic food, while Cerambycidae
(7.03%), Culicidae (8.88%), Apidae
(5.92%), Termitidae (10.37%), Acrididae
(15.18%), Erebidae (13.33%), and Pentatomidae
(5.55%) formed constant food, and, Formicidae (4.07%)
and Crambidae (4.44%) formed chance food of the total
frequency in the sample in summer (Figure 3). In the monsoon, Crambidae (21.70%) formed basic food, followed by families Culicidae (9.75%), Formicidae
(11.95%), Termitidae (10.24%), Acrididae
(7.07%), Gryllidae (14.14%), Erebidae (8.04%), & Pentatomidae (9.02%) forming constant food, and Cerambycidae (4.14%), & Apidae
(3.90%) formed chance food (Figure 3) of the total frequency of the sample. In
the winter, families Cerambycidae (15.52%), Apidae (6.21%), Acrididae
(10.55%), Erebidae (18.01%), Crambidae
(17.39%), Lasiocampidae (11.80%), & Pentatomidae (12.42%) formed constant food, and Culicidae (3.72%) & Termitidae
(1.86%) formed chance food (Figure 3).
A significant variation was
observed over seasons among the families of insects consumed by S. kuhlii such as Culicidae (H=
19.16, p <0.001), Formicidae (H= 22.92, p
<0.001), Termitidae (H= 6.67, p <0.035), Acrididae (H= 5.74, p <0.05), Gryllidae (H= 24.51, p
<0.0001), Crambidae (H= 24.86, p <0.0001), Lasioampidae (H= 22.82, p <0.0001), & Pentatomidae (H= 8.52, p <0.014) except Cerambycidae (H= 1.38, p <0.50), Apidae
(H= 1.83, p >0.399), & Erebidae (H= 1.74, p
<0.41) (Figure 3).
Seasonal prey availability at
foraging grounds
A total of 23 insect families
corresponding to nine orders were captured from various foraging grounds. A
statistically significant variation in insect abundance was observed with
respect to seasons in the foraging grounds. Lepidopterans were the most
dominant at all locations with family Erebidae (H=
2.07, p >0.35) being abundant in March, October and November and common in
January months, followed by Crambidae (H= 1.32, p
>0.51) which was more abundant in October and November and common in
February. Family Geometridae (H= 5.34, p >0.69)
was more abundant in April and October, while in the remaining months it was
rare or absent, similarly, family Noctuidae (H= 0.29,
p >0.96) was more abundant in May and October while in remaining months, it
was rare or absent. Family Limcadidae (H= 5.96, p
<0.05) was more abundant in October month and rare in September and November
months. Family Lasiocampidae (H= 3.08, p >0.21)
was more abundant in December and common in March and September months (Table
2). Hemiptera, was second most captured in the whole sampling, with family Cicadellidae (H= 3.14, p >0.200) being more abundant in
October and common in December; family Reduviidae (H=
1.56, p >0.45) was more abundant in March and September, while in remaining
months it was rare, followed by, Pentatomidae (H=
10.15, p >0.006) that was more abundant in April, July, and August. Family
Lygaeidae (H= 11.22, p <0.004) was more abundant in August and common in
September month, whereas Ischneumonidae (H= 0.58, p
>0.74) was more abundant only in September. Coleoptera,
was the third most captured insect order during sampling, including family Elmidae (H= 10.30, p <0.006) was more abundant in July
and rare in June, August, and September; Carambycidae
(H= 8, p <0.014) was common in November and December, and Carabidae (H= 1.32, p >0.51) was more abundant in April
and common in March. Among Dipterans, family Culicidae
(H= 6.91, p <0.031) was more common in April, June, and August, and abundant
in July, whereas, Tipulidae (H= 13.61, p <0.001)
was more abundant in July and common in June and August (Table 2). Among
Hymenopterans, Apidae (H= 10.71, p <0.005) was
more abundant in May and July and common in June, whereas Formicidae
(H= 6.09, p <0.047) was more common in June and abundant in July month
(Table 2). Among Isoptera, Termitidae
(H= 4.94, p >0.08) was more abundant in June and July while rare in May and
August than any other month (Table 2). Among Orthopterans, Acrididae
(H= 11.38, p <0.003) was more abundant in March to May and September, while
it was common in June, July, and February. Family Gryllidae (H= 12.03, p
<0.002) was abundant in April to July and September than any other month
(Table 2). Among Odonata, Anisoptera (H= 19.02, p
<0.001) was more common in July and August while more abundant in September.
Among Mantodea, family Mantidae
(H= 5.14, p >0.76) was more abundant in February and rare in March than any
other month (Table 2).
DISCUSSION
In the present study, a
clear seasonal variation was observed in the diet of S. kuhlii. Studies by Barclay (1985), Ramanujam
& Werzuski (2004), and Zhu et al. (2012) showed
that S. kuhli fed mainly on Hemiptera and Coleoptera; Coleoptera (most
often); Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Odonata, Homoptera and Trichoptera,
respectively. Srinivasulu et al. (2010) reported that
this species mainly feeds on Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera, which include Anisopodidae, Chironomidae, Culicidae, Scatophagidae, Carabidae, Scarabidae, and Ichnemonidae. The results of our study showed that in Uttar
Pradesh, S. Kuhlii fed mainly Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera,
Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera in all seasons. Our study showed that families
Gryllidae and Acrididae were major foods in the diet
of S. kuhlii, while Erebidae,
Termitidae, and Culicidae
were secondary foods in summer. Family Acrididae
(Grasshopper) was maximum captured in March to September, and disappeared
August to January, while Gryllidae (Crickets) were maximum captured in April to
September and disappeared from August to March, and Culicidae
was maximum captured in July, June, and April. Some small insect groups are not
consumed by bats even if they are very abundant in their habitats (Pereira et
al. 2002; Jaskuła & Hejduk
2005) because they provide lower energy content compared to larger prey items.
Our study showed that Apidae and Formicidae
were preferred by S. kuhlii in summer. Andreas
et al. (2012) reported low diversity and abundance of the food supply during
the winter, with diversity and abundance peaking in the summer season. Our
result showed Crambidae, Gryllidae, Formicidae were major food items in the diet of S. kuhlii in the monsoon season. Though, Crambidae (Grass-moths) was captured maximum in October and
November and totally absent in December and January and again appeared in
February to May but was rare, Gryllidae (Crickets) were maximum captured in
April to July and September, Formicidae (Ants) were
captured maximum in July, disappeared September to April and appeared again in
May as the third major food item in the diet of S. kuhlii
in the monsoon. Lynch et al. (1988) reported that Formicidae peak in June, but species richness was nearly as
high in May, July and August. Whitaker et al. (1994) reported that ants
were the most consumed prey, followed by Coleoptera
and Lepidoptera. Our result showed Erebidae, Crambidae, Lasiocampidae, Cerambycidae, Pentatomidae, and Acrididae were the major food items in S. kuhlii’s diet in the winter when other prey were
limited. Kunz et al. (1995) reported that moths have highly fatty body and are
a more energy-rich source, therefore bats feed maximum on them. More moths were
fed on by S. kuhlii in winter, which helps
during breeding when more energy is required.
Insectivorous bats deliver
economically valuable ecological services and decrease health risks to humans
by reducing dependence on pesticides. Leelapaibul et
al. (2005) reported that insectivorous bats act as biological pest control
agents in the agricultural fields, feeding on pests belonging to Homoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera
in farms. Our study showed that S. kuhlii
consumed several types of insects belonging to Coleoptera,
Diptera, Isoptera,
Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Odonata, Blattodae,
Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera and may be a good pest controlling agent. A study on
Scotophilus leucogaster
by Barclay (1984) showed that it had a varied diet from throughout the year as
well as from season to season and night to night. These changes in diet and
dietary diversity likely correspond to changes in insect abundance and
distribution. The diet of S. kuhii and
collected insect abundance showed a correlation in the seasonal variation which
occurred due to choice of prey related to habitat use by S. kuhlii and climatic conditions.
CONCLUSION
Scotophilus kuhlii is a medium sized insectivorous
bat. It fed on 11 families of insects corresponding to nine orders. Although 23
families of insects belonging to eight orders were collected from the foraging
grounds, it was observed that this species consumed few families among the
captured insect families at the foraging grounds. The diet of S. kuhii and collected insect abundance showed a
correlation between seasonal variations in diet choice. The results revealed
that S. kuhlii is an opportunistic feeder, and
its diet varied from season to season.
Table 1.
The mean and SD of partially digested insect fragments consumed by Scotophilus kuhlii in
three different seasons in Uttar Pradesh, India.
|
|
Summer |
|
Monsoon |
|
|
Winter |
|
|
Wings |
Antenna |
Legs |
Wings |
Antenna |
Legs |
Wings |
Antenna |
Legs |
|
Order |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Mean ± SD |
Col |
15.8 ± 2.87 |
18.0 ± 9.12 |
2.5 ± 1.73 |
21.7 ± 2.08 |
19.7 ± 6.65 |
2.7 ± 3.78 |
10.2 ± 3.83 |
10.8 ± 5.93 |
0.6 ± 0.89 |
Dip |
5.8 ± 2.21 |
6.5 ± 2.38 |
0.7 ± 0.95 |
16.7 ± 1.52 |
9.0 ± 3.46 |
- |
5.8 ± 1.30 |
3.4 ± 0.54 |
0.8 ± 1.30 |
Hym |
14.3 ± 3.77 |
12.0 ± 1.25 |
0.3 ± 0.50 |
11.3 ± 4.16 |
13.3 ± 3.21 |
- |
6.6 ± 4.15 |
7.4 ± 2.88 |
- |
Iso |
3.0 ± 1.82 |
4.5 ± 1.20 |
0 |
5.0 ± 2.64 |
6.7 ± 1.52 |
- |
5.0 ± 2.64 |
6.7 ± 1.52 |
- |
Ort |
10.3 ± 3.68 |
10.5 ± 1.91 |
2.5 ± 3.00 |
11.3 ± 5.68 |
14.3 ± 3.21 |
0.3 ± 0.577 |
5.4 ± 2.07 |
7.4 ± 2.70 |
- |
Odo |
8.5 ± 2.88 |
10.5 ± 3.31 |
1.5 ± 1.91 |
10.0 ± 3.00 |
12.0 ± 2.00 |
0.7 ± 0.577 |
3.8 ± 2.04 |
6.4 ± 2.70 |
0.4 ± 0.89 |
Bla |
11.5 ± 30 |
3.8 ± 2.36 |
0.25 ± 0.50 |
6.7 ± 1.15 |
9.7 ± 6.42 |
- |
3.8 ± 2.38 |
3.4 ± 1.14 |
- |
Lep |
7.3 ± 3.09 |
7.0 ± 2.94 |
0.5 ± 1.00 |
6.3 ± 1.52 |
10.3 ± 5.68 |
- |
5.6 ± 1.51 |
5.2 ± 1.09 |
0.4 ± 0.54 |
Hem |
10.0 ± 2.94 |
6.5 ± 0.57 |
0.75 ± 0.95 |
7.3 ± 4.04 |
7.3 ± 4.50 |
- |
3.2 ± 0.44 |
4.4 ± 1.51 |
- |
Col—Coleoptera
| Dip—Diptera | Hym—Hymenoptera
| Iso—Isoptera | Ort—Orthoptera
| Odo—Odonata | Bla—Blattodea | Lep—Lepidoptera |
Hem—Hemiptera.
Table 2. Insect abundance at
various study sites.
Taxon |
Summer |
Monsoon |
Winter |
||||||||||
Order |
Family |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sept |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Jan |
Feb |
Coleoptera |
Elmidae |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
*** |
* |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Coleoptera |
Cerambycidae |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
** |
** |
0 |
0 |
Coleoptera |
Carabidae |
** |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Diptera |
Culicidae |
* |
** |
0 |
** |
*** |
** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Diptera |
Tipulidae |
0 |
0 |
* |
** |
*** |
** |
* |
* |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hymenoptera |
Apidae |
0 |
* |
*** |
** |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hymenoptera |
Formicidae |
0 |
0 |
* |
** |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Isoptera |
Termitidae |
0 |
0 |
* |
*** |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Orthoptera |
Acrididae |
*** |
*** |
*** |
** |
** |
0 |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
** |
Orthoptera |
Gryllidae |
0 |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
0 |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Odonata |
Anisoptera |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
** |
** |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Lepidoptera |
Erebidae |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
*** |
0 |
** |
* |
Lepidotera |
Crambidae |
* |
* |
* |
0 |
* |
* |
* |
*** |
*** |
0 |
0 |
** |
Lepidotera |
Geometridae |
* |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Lepidotera |
Noctuidae |
0 |
* |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
* |
* |
0 |
0 |
Lepidotera |
Limcadidae |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
*** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Lepidotera |
Cicadillidae |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
* |
** |
0 |
0 |
Lepidotera |
Lasiocampidae |
** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
** |
0 |
* |
*** |
0 |
0 |
Hemiptera |
Reduviidae |
*** |
* |
* |
0 |
* |
0 |
*** |
* |
* |
* |
0 |
0 |
Hemiptera |
Pentatomidae |
0 |
*** |
0 |
0 |
*** |
* |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hemiptera |
Lygacidae |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
** |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hemiptera |
Ischneumonidae |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
*** |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
* |
Mantodea |
Mantidae |
* |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
* |
*** |
The insect abundance was
classified as: Absent (0), Rare (*), Common (**), Abundant (***).
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