Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 December 2020 | 12(17): 17276–17286
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6243.12.17.17276-17286
#6243 | Received 29 May 2020 | Final received
10 November 2020 | Finally accepted 02 December 2020
A review about fish walking on
land
Arumugam Kumaraguru
1, Rosette Celsiya Mary 2 & Vijayaraghavalu
Saisaraswathi 3
1 Honorary Wildlife Warden, Thiruvarur Forest Division, Tamil Nadu Forest Department,
Tamil Nadu 620021, India.
1 Biodiversity Conservation
Foundation, #360, Indira Gandhi Street, KK.Nagar,
Trichy, Tamil Nadu 620021, India.
2 Nature Club, 2,3 School
of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology University, Vellore,
Tamil Nadu 632007, India.
1 tiger.kguru@gmail.com, 2 rosetconserve@gmail.com,
3 sainaturevit@gmail.com
(corresponding author)
Editor: A. Biju Kumar, University of
Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India. Date of
publication: 26 December 2020 (online & print)
Citation: Kumaraguru,
A., R.C. Mary & V. Saisaraswathi (2020). A review about fish walking on
land. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(17): 17276–17286. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.6243.12.17.17276-17286
Copyright: © Kumaraguru
et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Dr. A. Kumaraguru is working as conservation scientist specialized in wildlife biology
and genetic studies on tiger. Ms. Rosette is currently doing her MSc
in biotechnology and her research interests include marine biology,
biodiversity and conservation, phytochemical studies, molecular docking. Dr. V. Sai
Saraswathi is an expert in environmental sciences, working for the
conservation of biodiversity, climate change, ethnobotany, pharmacognosy, and
phytochemistry.
Author contribution: In this review paper, VS
contributed in the literature review collection, paper editing, proof
reading. ER collected literature review,
paper drafting. AK prepared the review
design, proof reading and editing. All
authors were involved in the mansuscript revision.
Abstract: Mudskippers are amphibious
species inhabiting semi-terrestrial ecosystems like mudflats, mangroves, marshy
swamps, intertidal regions, and estuaries.
Around 34 diversified species are found across the globe. Mudskipper belongs to the Oxudercidae
family and the subfamily is Oxudercinae. The occurrence of species is vastly found
across the Indo-West Pacific region, the tropical western coast of Africa and
in the Indian Ocean. Mudskippers are
known for being the biological indicator and also an indicator of estuarine
safety monitoring. They are used by
people for prey-catching baits. This
review paper explains the ecological indicators, taxonomy, species diversity,
habitat, behavioural pattern, respiration & kinematics, feeding ecology,
reproduction, nutrition content & its medicinal value, and threats to
mudskippers.
Keywords: Amphibious fish, distribution,
ecological indicator, mudskippers, species diversity.
INTRODUCTION
Osche (1962) suggested that
mudskippers would be useful for interpreting the transition of species from
water to land. There is some evidence
about the transition of fishes to tetrapods, which
occurred more than 360 million years ago (Ulrich & Elliott 2013). There are about 40 species classified under
10 genera. Mudskippers predominantly
inhabit the mangrove forest and mudflats of the Indo-West Pacific region, the
tropical western coast of Africa, and Indian Ocean coastlines. Mudskippers are known to be burrow dwellers
preferring the swampy marshes, estuaries, and the intertidal regions for their
living (Murdy 1989).
The feeding ecology of the Mudskipper Periophthalmus
barbarous was found to be ‘opportunistic feeders’ meant to be satisfying
the food needs with the available resources (Chukwu & Deekae
2013). Generally, mudskippers feed on
algae, detritus, diatoms, nematode, polychaetes and eggs of fishes, along with
mud and sand particles (Ravi 2013).
Since long ago, researchers have
explored mudskipper’s distribution pattern, species diversity, behavioural
patterns and their locomotory activities. In 1989, Murdy
studied the morphological features of mudskippers, which paved the way for
taxonomic classification of mudskippers.
Also, he hypothesized the relationship of Oxudericnae
gobies with other genera and groups.
Mudskipper’s early developmental age & growth, respiratory &
circulatory adaptations, and feeding ecology were also studied by many
researchers across the globe (Jaafar & Murdy
2017).
Due to the medicinal properties
found in mudskippers, it gains commercial value either through food consumption
or as traditional medicine by humans (Kanejiya et al.
2017a). Sometimes they are even used as
bait for catching prey (Gadhavi et al. 2017). A few of the vernacular names used in
different places for referring to mudskippers are Periophthalmus
darwini, Periophthalmus
sp., and Periophthalmus novaeguineaensis as sakomo, Periophthalmus as nebesokera,
Periophthalmus weberi
as paraguamo, Periophthalmodon
freycineti as genora, Boleophthalmus caeruleomaculatus
as ebanea, Boleophthalmus
sp. as poti, Scarpellos histophorus
as seekakowea, Oxuderces
wirzi as canipo (Polgar
& Lim 2011). Mudskippers are known
as ‘vaetti uluvai’ in Tamil
(Ragunathan 2010).
Ecological Indicator
Monitoring the intertidal and
estuarine health depending on their abundance mudskippers have direct affection
towards salinity and temperature variations (Kanejiya
et al. 2017c). They also contribute
towards the growth of mangrove trees, when the population of mudskippers is
abundant, consequently providing appropriate nutrients supporting the growth of
mangroves (Shenoy et al. 2012).
Polgar (2009) attempted the
studies of Malayan mudskippers as a biomonitor in
mangroves concerning species area relationship (SAR) and revealed that the
destruction of habitats resulted from reduced species abundance. Mudskippers bioaccumulate pollutants through
ingestion as they tend to be prey for many mudflat species. Mudskippers ensure
the coastal, intertidal, and estuary’s health (Polgar & Lim 2011). Studies have shown that mudskippers act as a
biological indicator of addressing the severity of oil pollution in the coastal
areas of the Persian Gulf. Biomarker
responses of Periophthalmus waltoni were recorded and discovered that it acts as
the ideal candidate for bioindicator in the coastal regions and mudflats. Correspondingly, it can be utilized for
achieving sustainable development (Shirani et al.
2012).
Similarly, at Kuwait Bay, Periophthalmus waltoni acts
as a bioindicator in identifying the bioaccumulation of metals (Bu-Olayan & Thomas 2008).
It tends to be a feeble indicator at the Persian Gulf marine ecosystem,
a biomonitor candidate-Boleophthalmus
dussumieri used in the monitoring of polycyclic
aromatic compounds (PAH). It might be
various other environmental factors which are acting in that ecosystem leading B.
dussumieri to be helpless (Sinaei
& Mashinchian 2014). Metal toxicity and accumulation of metal
toxicants like Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu have suggested that
mudskippers are an ideal biomonitor. It was observed that their fins and liver are
the biomonitors and accumulate metal toxins. Due to the contaminants of various metal
pollutant, it is not recommended for human consumptions (Ikram et al. 2010).
Taxonomy
Mudskippers belong to the family Oxudercidae and the subfamily Oxudercinae. Some of the species are tabulated in Table 1
and Image 1.
Species Diversity
Globally, 34 diverse species of
mudskippers were recognized, and among them, nine were found in Indian
coastlines (Murdy et al. 1989). Nearly five diversified mudskipper species
have been effectively documented from
Gujarat coastlines (Devendra et al. 2016).
In the southeastern coast of India,
mudskippers were recorded most during the post-monsoon season, and their
preferred habitats are estuarine lands and mangrove areas. A group of eight species from the Malay
Peninsula and 12 species from Sumatra is present along the Straits of Malacca (Takita & Ali 1999).
Earlier, there were nine species of mudskippers recorded in peninsular
Malaysia (Polgar 2009). Recent studies
have updated the total count to 17 in peninsular Malaysia (Khaironizam
& Rashid 2005). Nineteen species
have been recorded recently in the Ramsar site,
Johor, Malaysia (Hui et al. 2019). Some
of the mudskipper species found in Merauke District,
Indonesia are Boleophthalmus boddarti, B. pectinirostris,
P. takita, P. argentilineatus,
Scartelaos histophorus,
and Oxuderces dentatus
(Elviana et al. 2019). Periophthalmus
waltoni is maximally distributed along the
Persian Gulf though there are many threats to its population density (Sharifian
et al. 2018). Though there is a diverse
population of Periophthalmus barbarus around southeastern
Nigeria, it is affected by overexploitation (Abiaobo
& Udo 2017). People do not consume Periophthalmus novemradiatus
as a result of which their growth rate is rapidly increasing along the Bakkhali River Estuary, Bangladesh (Rahman et al.
2015). Complete phylogeographic studies
of Periophthalmus distributed along
Indo-Pacific region helped to understand its evolutionary history (Polgar et
al. 2014). Periophthalmus
spilotus, a new species of mudskipper, was
identified from Sumatra, Indonesia (Murdy & Takita 1999).
Similarly, a new species Parapocryptes
serperaster has been recorded in peninsular
Malaysia (Khaironizam & Rashid 2000). Periophthalmus
walailakae has been recorded in southeastern India (Mahadevan et al. 2019a). There were about 24 newly recorded species
during the recent studies in Indonesian waters (Pormansyah
et al. 2019).
Living Habitat
Mudskippers inhabit riparian
areas with soft and muddy plains. Also,
they inhabit where the salinity level is found to be low and the place rich
with benthic invertebrates (Baeck et al. 2008). Numerous species were living on the rocky
coastline as much, as they occupy mudflats, mangroves, and sand flats (Gordon
et al. 1968). Rehabilitating the coastal
region with mangrove saplings gives a better habitat for various species, and
it was observed that large-sized mudskippers were found in the breakwater (sheltered
area for mangroves) (Hashim et al. 2010). Pseudapocryptes
elongatus is able to tolerate the salinity, and hence it survives in the
open sea, coastal mangroves and inland habitat during different stages of their
growth (Bucholtz et al. 2009). Mudskippers alter the environmental
conditions improving the growth of young mangroves as they mix the soil with
detritus (Ravi et al. 2013). Studies
related to the microhabitat selection of Chinese mudskippers identified their
preferences, such as salinity levels, land or water; water and air
temperatures; light or dark; and various combinations among them were conveyed
(Gordon et al. 1985). The major threats
to the mudflats are soil erosion, macro algae, terrestrialization,
and lack of estuarine water, human interference, and discharge of effluents
(Ravi 2012). Periophthalmodon
septemradiatus species is found to be the first
species inhabiting and breeding from a saline environment to a completely fresh
water region of the Mekong River (Mai et al. 2019). Boleophthalmus pectinirostris
has shown behavioural preferences in choosing their microhabitat at their early
juvenile stage (Chen et al. 2008). To
determine the habitat selection, genomic studies were performed, and also the
comparative analysis among different species were conducted (Cai 1996). Different mudskippers inhabit different
microhabitats and have different burrow construction methods (Clayton
1993). Habitat selection is dependent on
its ecological interactions (Polgar & Crosa
2009). Some species such as Periophthalmodon septemradiatus
is found to survive in habitats with low salinity and far from the sea, whereas
B. boddarti survives close to the sea
with high salinity (Khaironiazam & Rashid
2003). Mudskippers preferred thick
mudflat areas for carrying out their burrowing activity effortlessly (Kanejiya et al. 2017c).
Burrows constructed by Bolephthalmus
boddartti are classified as follows: burrows with
single apertures represent newly constructed one, and the other single and
double openings ones currently exist. In
contrast, the burrows with multiple apertures represent collapsed ones due to
human interventions (Ravi et al. 2004).
Behavioral pattern of mudskipper
Population density is inversely
proportional to the growth rate as the availability of food decreases due to an
increased population. Boleophthalmus pectinirostris
(Blue-spotted Mudskipper) is found to have the longest lifespan; seven and six
years in males and females, respectively (Nanami & Takegaki
2005). A study on the terrestrial life
of mudskippers with Periophthalmus sobrinus showed their survival capacity out of water is
one and a half days. Surprisingly, there
was no affection in metabolic and heart rates as well as the lactic acid
concentration in blood during their living out of the water (Gordon et al.
1969). Whereas Chinese Mudskipper Periophthalmus cantonensis survives
for two and a half days out of the water and observed medium sensitiveness of
metabolism towards temperature.
Starvation for 9.5 days did not affect the excretion of ammonia but
affected excretion of urea (Gordon et al. 1978).
Boleophthalmus dussumieri has separate exit and entry for
males and females. Juveniles pierce deep
into mud during high tides. Adults
neglect to build chimneys surrounding their holes as the consistency of the
soil is between sand and clay (Rathod et al. 2019). Mudskippers growth rate is affected when
being exposed to pollution at the embryonic stage (Kruitwagen
et al. 2006). There is a significant
role played by aquaporins (integral membrane proteins) for adapting themselves
to the terrestrial lifestyle. The
selective changes, like pore formation and substrate selection, have a
substantial contribution to their adaptation to an amphibious lifestyle (Lorente-Martinez et al. 2018). The species Periophthalmodon
schlosseri is found to be an ideal species for
aquaculture and more mudskipper studies (Quang 2016). Mudskippers like Boleophthalmus
boddarti constructs mud-walls, for territorial
exclusion or spacing, territory, and reduces hostility. This is based on their abundance. These regional behavioural patterns give
better knowledge about the elastic disc concept of territories (Clayton 1987). Mudflats are vital for the survival of
mudskippers but global warming is a serious threat as the mudflats are greatly
affected due to high temperature.
Spawning season in Scartelaos gigas is from May to July. The growth rate is dependent on diet, water
temperature, and mudflat exposure (Park et al. 2002).
Some mudskipper species tend to
be more comfortable with a terrestrial lifestyle rather than an aquatic
lifestyle. One among them is Periophthalmodon schlosseri,
which has gill arrangements which are highly adaptable for air-breathing, and
they spend less time in marine habitats (Takeda et al. 1999). Boleophthalmus boddarti builds mud walls for two significant reasons:
to avoid hostility between neighbours and as assistance for feeding. Diatoms are the most preferred food for
mudskippers. They prefer feeding on mud
slopes as a measure of preventing intervention by their neighbours (Clayton
& Wright 1989). Periophthalmus
sobrinus prefers to live unaccompanied and rarely
lives within closed groups. There were
large spacings between nests and dark places were preferred for foraging (Gordon
et al. 1968). The growth rates and life
duration of both the sexes of Pseudapocryptes elongatus
obtained from Sundarbans, India is four-plus years for both the sexes as the
maximum age. Their growth index (Φ) is
4.394 (males) and 4.503 (females) possessing larger caudal fins (Mahadevan et
al. 2019c).
The reason for aggressiveness in Periophthalmus modestus
is the hypothalamic hormone, arginine-vasotocin (VT)
(Nao et al. 2013). The foraging
behaviours in Periophthalmus waltoni are not influenced by environmental
factors. They hunt in the same area as
their prey stays inside the burrow for a longer period of time (Clayton &
Snowden 2000). The growth of Bolepthalmus boddarti
has been recorded high during their juvenile period, decreasing in successive
years because of maturation and spending their energy in spawning (Ravi &
Rajagopal 2007).
Respiration and kinematics
Anatomical characteristics of
mudskipper gills decide on adaptations of their habitat and B. boddarti is one that shows excellent adaptation to
aquatic lifestyle. In comparison,
terrestrial adaptations were favoured more at odds with their amphibious
lifestyle (Low et al. 1988). Since
mudskippers appear to change the way their skin breathes, their epidermis and
skin layers have been studied in detail (Beon et al.
2012). They adapt towards terrestrial
lifestyle by secreting mucus, and their head containing dense capillary network
assists cutaneous respiration (Jie et al. 2003). Studies related to gaseous exchange and their
demand for oxygen were done in the intertidal regions (Karen 1993). Ammonia excretion happens in mudskippers (Periophthalmodon schlosseri)
through their head. Ammonia gets
collected in their burrow through the acidification process, preventing them
from reverse fluctuation (Randall et al. 2004).
Mudskippers maintain the air phases according to the tide. They can breathe both aquatically and
aerially when there is a high tide, while at low tides they transfer air into
their burrow for breathing (Lee et al. 2005).
Comprehensive research was conducted in Periophthalmus
magnuspinnatus on cutaneous respiration and its
relationship with skin layers (Park 2002).
Several mudskippers reported evaporative water loss along with their
behavioural adaptations (Dabruzzi et al. 2011). Significant characteristics of gills found in
Periophthalmodon schlosseri,
contribute to their ability to live inland for a longer period of time (Wilson
et al. 1999). The modifications and
transformations that occur in the gill respiratory vasculatures and the
mudskippers of the bucco-opercular cavities were
examined using the technique of corrosion casting. This has helped to define their adaptation to
an amphibious lifestyle (Gonzales et al. 2011).
Histological studies using the paraffin method have studied the
ambiguity in the structure of the gills and simultaneously compared their
aquatic and terrestrial lifestyles (Supriyati et al.
2019). For their survival,
condition-specific biochemical adaptations occurred during hypoxia, where the
glycolysis process is modified to provide energy during muscle movements, and
lactate is accumulated (Chew & Ip 1992).
Contradictory circumstances occur
concerning their adaptations between Periophthalmodon
schlosseri and Boleophthalmus
boddarti.
Around the same time, P. schlosseri
tends to be adaptable to a terrestrial lifestyle and is an excellent candidate
for aquaculture studies related to air-breathing fish. B. boddarti,
however, appear as opposed to the earlier one (Kok et
al. 1998). Mudskipper is an anomaly that
stores pre-entry air inside their burrow and has no metabolism affection. They regularly maintain their air stages and
adapt them to their amphibious lifestyle (Ishimatsu
et al. 1998). The essential feature of
their adaptation to terrestrial life is the presence of dermal bulges, thick
middle cell layer and a vascularized epidermis (Zhang et al. 2000). In low tide conditions, the intertidal
fishes, like mudskippers, tend to have many options to choose from. Mudskippers either agree to be an aquatic or
temporary terrestrial living being (Karen 1995). Mudskipper’s locomotion has been
experimentally tested using water on gelatin and
glass along with the assistance of a system for digital image processing. Wang et al. (2013) discovered through their
study that mudskipper uses both body and pectoral fins for movement in the
water and on gelatin, whereas they use only pectoral
fins for land action. Escapism is a critical behaviour that is required for
their survival. A few studies have shown
that, during aquatic and terrestrial lifestyles, mudskippers alter their
position as escapists (Swanson & Gibb 2004).
Feeding ecology
The mudskipper Pseudapocryptes dentatus
follows herbivorous feeding patterns. Their main order is Diatoms-Bacillariophyceae, green algae and blue-green algae. Levels in size and metabolism are inversely
proportional (Sarker et al. 1980). Both plants and animals were documented while
studying the Periophthalmus barbarous
stomach. This included mainly crabs, fish
scales, and insects. We can recognize
from this that mud-skippers are opportunistic feeders and are an ideal
aquaculture choice (Chukwu & Deekae 2013). As described, their key food items include
-diatoms, nematode, polychaetes, fish eggs, algae, detritus, along with
particles of mud and sand (Ravi 2013).
It has been shown, according to the study conducted with Periophthalmodon schlosseri,
that there are differential preferences in the selection of food products
between male and female. Females preferred
small-scale fish, namely Oryzias sp.,
and males over small-scale fiddler crabs because they were highly involved in
land activities (Zulkifli et al. 2012).
The periophthalmus
sobrinus feeds on small animals. Their food sources are polychaetes, polydora, terebellid, nematodes, crustaceans, copepods, tanaids, prawns, schizopod larvae, alpheid shrimp
juveniles, Uca chlorophthalmus,
and tiny sand crab (Stebbins & Kalk 1961). The discerned food items of Periophthalmus waltoni
are crustaceans (high occurrence), snails (slightly lower occurrence), 3.4%
insects (lower appearance), and fishes (least) (Mhaisen
& Al-maliki 2013). Boleophthalmus
pectinirostris selects their meal based on the
abundance, availability, size of the diatoms and temperature. The size of the species reflects over its
feeding apparatus (Yang et al. 2003).
Boleophthalmus boddarti likewise feeds on Bacillariophyta (Quang 2015). The anatomical characteristics in Periuphthalmus kuelreuteri
are examined by light and X-ray cinematography. It pushes forward with its pelvic fins when
the prey gets near, and brings the jaws near to the target. Opercular bones,
aid swallowing into the pharynx to position the prey. They found it easy to capture the prey in the
land by biting and open mouth. It
reaches the stomach via an esophagus after passing
the pharyngeal jaws (Sponder & Launder 1981).
Reproduction
Studies were conducted in
Nigeria’s lagoon swamps, which concentrated primarily on sex ratios, egg
diameters, gonodosomatic index and levels of
maturation (Lawson 2010). Reports on the
growth of eggs with artificial fertilization and larval reports in the species Periophthalmus cantonensis
were carried out (Tsuhako et al. 2003). The mudskipper’s eggs were laid deep within
the burrows where there is a hypoxic environment, and male mudskippers supply
the oxygen by depositing oxygen through water.
Once the development of the eggs is complete, they are released from the
burrows and hatched by tides, making them prepare themselves during severity (Ishimatsu et al. 2007).
A research on Apocryptes bato’s (Gobiidae) reproductive biology in the Payra
River, southern Bangladesh, helped to understand the basics of reproduction in
mudskippers (Ferdous et al. 2018).
Studies related to reproductive biology, fertilization, maximum sizes
achieved along with spawning will allow local fishermen to know the exact time
of catching them, rather than disturb them during spawning seasons. The concept was prominent from the studies of
sex maturation of Boleophthalmus boddarti (Quang et al. 2015). The species Periophthalmodon
septemradiatus lays eggs year-round. Observing their complete duration during the
maturation stages helped to understand reproductive biology and to learn about
the methods of conservation (Dinh et al. 2018). Studies at intertidal swamps of the Imo River
estuary dealt about the reproductive biology of Periophthalmus
barbarous along with growth, mortality, recruitment pattern, gonadosomatic
index, and spawning season (Etim et al. 2002).
Studies on nutrition content and
medicinal value
Nutrient content of three species
Periophthalmus waltoni,
Boleophthalmus dussumieri,
and Scartelaos histophorus
were measured, such as starch, protein, and lipid. Boleophthalmus
dussumieri is rich in nutrients and it comes
from the liver. Because of this
adventitious effect, people consume them in the Bhavnagar coast, Gujarat (Kanejiya et al. 2017a).
Mudskippers are known to be very rich in proteins and other
nutrients. They are either used in
traditional medicines in countries like Malaysia or as bait and also utilized
for consumption. During winter, mudskippers are caught and sold
at the market by fishermen using net trap methods (Kanejiya
et al. 2017b). Likewise, there are
growing demands for mudskippers at Narmada estuary, Gujarat, and they are
favoured by local people. As a result of
this, the ecosystem can get highly exploited and can impact biodiversity
(Bhakta et al. 2018). Though mudskipper
meat possess nutritional benefits there are researchers stating about metal
toxicity and bioaccumulation when consumed.
The research by Looi et al. (2016) concluded that the bioaccumulation of
mercury in Periophthalmodon schlosseri did not cause any serious effects when
consumed. From the evaluation of the
nutrient content of Pseudapocryptes
elongatus, it has been shown to contain sufficient protein, carbohydrate,
lipid, important and non-essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acid
(PFA) with a greater amount than saturated fatty acid (SFA). For consumption it is highly recommended
because of its nutritive value (Mahadevan et al. 2019b). Mudskippers
are widely available in Nigeria and their prices are comparatively low, and
they are consumed by the elderly (Edun et al.
2010). Exposure of mudskipper Boleophthalmus boddarti
to natural radionuclides (238U, 226Ra and 210Pb
and 210Po), the radionuclide concentration was found to be below the
limit and therefore, did not have a profound impact in Bombay Harbour and
coastal zone (Bangera & Patel 1984).
Threats to mudskippers
The effect on mudskipper density
was recorded in the mudflats of Hathab coast,
Gujarat, considering salinity and temperature as independent variables. Accordingly, mudskipper abundance and
distribution have become a vital indicator for determining intertidal region
health (Kanejiya et al. 2017c). Post-tsunami studies at Mudasolodai,
Tamil Nadu, revealed that rapid changes in soil morphology led to changes that
directly affected the mudskippers’ livelihood.
For construction, they usually prefer clay-rich soil, rather than sandy
soil (Ravi 2005). Although metal uptakes
were increasingly high during lower salinity, the levels of salinity in the
intertidal mudskipper Periophthalmus cantonensis did not affect the metal (Cd, Se, & Zn)
concentration factors (CF) (Ni et al. 2006).
Mudskippers face other menaces due to metal toxicity. To illustrate, when exposed to Cr (Vl), Boleophthalmus dentatus causes affection in the activity of Na+
, K+ and ATPase, and further affects membrane activity, also causing
metabolic stress (Kundu et al. 1995).
Similarly, the same has also been deduced in other studies pertaining to
Boleophthalmus dentatus
obtained from the Gulf of Katch (Lakshmi et al.
1991). The shrimp effluents collected at
the mudskipper habitat in the northern Persian Gulf have proved to support
mudskipper enrichment, which helps them increase their species density and
length. Despite severe changes and
reduced dissolved oxygen, shrimp effluents create favourable physical
conditions for their growth; it survived amid these adversities (Kohan et al.
2018). Mudskippers are known for their
versatile behaviour and amphibious character. They have less understanding of
the public and have lost interest. The
most striking characteristic of them is their survival ability and adaptation
to different environmental changes.
Surprisingly, mudskippers feed on the available foodstuffs, rather than
relying on specific foods. Further
research can be done with them as they define themselves as an ideal candidate
for aquaculture. Gills’ anatomical
features are specifically built to suit both the terrestrial and aquatic
lifestyles. They got adapted from the
initial stages of egg production to adjust to severities such as high tide, and
airflow maintenance.
CONCLUSION
Mudskippers are known for their
significant behaviour of adapting themselves to different environment and
amphibious nature. Mudskippers are less
popular among people and aren’t noticed much.
Their most amazing feature is their capacity to survive and their
adaptation to various changes in the environment. Surprisingly, mudskippers feed on the
foodstuffs available, rather than rely on particular foodstuffs. Further research can be carried out as they
may be an ideal candidate for aquaculture.
The anatomical characteristics of gills are designed primarily to
accommodate both the terrestrial and aquatic lifestyles. From the initial stages of egg production,
they are taught to adjust themselves to severities such as high tide and
maintenance of the airflow. The most
striking aspect about them is their position in coastal areas as a biological
indicator, pollution monitor, and estuarine health monitor.
Table 1. Taxonomic rank, genus,
and species of mudskippers around the world with reference to various authors
belonging to different periods.
|
Tribe (taxonomic rank) |
Genus |
Species |
References |
1 |
Oxudercini |
Parapocryptes |
Parapocryptes rictuosus, Parapocryptes serperaster |
Valenciennes 1846 |
2 |
Oxudercini |
Apocryptodon |
Apocryptodon madurensis, Apocryptodon punctatus |
Tomiyama 1934 |
4 |
Oxudercini |
Oxuderces |
Oxuderces dentatus, Oxuderces wirzi |
Koumans 1938 |
5 |
Periophthalmini |
Apocryptes |
Apocryptes bato |
Hamilton 1822 |
6 |
Periophthalmini |
Pseudapocryptes |
Pseudapocryptes borneensis, Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus |
Bloch & Schneider 1801 |
7 |
Periophthalmini |
Zappa |
Zappa confluentus |
Roberts 1978 |
8 |
Periophthalmini |
Scartelaos |
Scartelaos cantoris, Scartelaos gigas, Scartelaos histophorus, Scartelaos tenuis |
Chu & Wu 1963 |
9 |
Periophthalmini |
Boleophthalmus |
Boleophthalmus hirdsongi, Boleophthalmus boddarti, Boleophthalmus caeruleomaculatus, Boleophthalmus dussumieri, Boleophthalmus pectinirostris, |
Pallas 1772 |
10 |
Periophthalmini |
Periophthalmodon |
Periophthalmodon freycineti, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Periophthalmodon septemradiatus, |
Valenciennes 1846; Pallas 1772 Hamilton 1822 |
11 |
Periophthalmini |
Periophthalmus |
Periophthalmus argentilineatus, Periophthalmus harbarus, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus gracilis, Periophthalmus kalolo, Periophthalmus malaccensis, Periophthalmus minutus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmus novaeguineaensis, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus waltoni, Periophthalmus weberi |
Valenciennes 1846 Hamilton 1822 |
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