Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2022 | 14(9): 21870–21890
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5916.14.9.21870-21890
#5916 | Received 27 March 2020 | Final received 12 August
2022 | Finally accepted 23 August 2022
Invasive
alien plant species of Hassan District, Karnataka, India
G.M. Prashanth Kumar 1 & Shiddamallayya Nagayya
2
1
Department of Botany, Post Graduate Centre, University
of Mysore, Hassan, Karnataka 573220, India.
2
Regional Ayurveda Research Institute (Unit of
C.C.R.A.S, Ministry of AYUSH), Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh 791111, India.
1
gmpbelur@gmail.com,
2 snmathapati@gmail.com (corresponding
author)
Abstract:
This study was undertaken to document alien and
invasive flowering plant species in the Western Ghats (Hassan district,
Karnataka, India), with background information on family, habit, habitat,
longevity, nativity, and uses. A total of 312 alien species belonging to 236
genera in 79 families are listed. The majority belong to family Asteraceae (36
species), followed by Fabaceae (21 species), and Amaranthaceae
(17 species). Herbs constitute the majority (59%) of alien species followed by
shrubs (17 %). Around 36% the alien taxa are native to tropical America. Of 314
alien species, 122 were intentional introductions, with a majority (39%)
introduced for ornamental purposes; 24% of species have naturalized, while 33%
display as invasive. There is an urgent need to gather regional data on the
diversity of invasive alien plant species in order to study the impact on
native vegetation and biodiversity.
Keywords:
Exotic, naturalized species, ornamental, plant diversity, threats, Western
Ghats.
Editor:
Anonymity requested. Date of
publication: 26 September 2022 (online & print)
Citation:
Kumar, G.M.P. & S. Nagayya (2022).
Invasive alien plant species of Hassan District, Karnataka, India.
Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(9): 21870–21890.
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5916.14.9.21870-21890
Copyright:
© Kumar & Nagayya 2022.
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium
by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: No funding received for this
research paper.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details:
G.M. Prashanth Kumar
has interest in plant taxonomy and ethnobotany. Shiddamallayya Nagayya is a
higher plant taxonomist in the area of systematics and ethnobotany.
Author contribution: GMP
carried out the floristic study, collected the data and wrote the manuscript.
SN identified the species, interpreted the data and designed the manuscript. Both
authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements: Authors are grateful to Hassan district local
people for their support and encouragement during the survey of invasive alien
plant species. We thank the Director-General of CCRAS, New Delhi, and the
University of Mysore, Mysore, for their encouragement and support.
Introduction
The increase in human activity and increased
international trade, travel, and transport beyond biogeographic barriers has
led to the introduction and establishment of invasive alien species in new
regions (Dawson et al. 2017). Biological invasions have received much
consideration due to the potential threats they impose on native species,
natural systems, ecosystem processes & functioning, environmental quality,
and human health (Pyšek & Richardson 2010; Simberloff et al. 2013; Jones & McDermott 2018; Pearson
et al. 2018; Petruzzella et al. 2018; Bartz & Kowarik 2019; Rai
& Singh 2020). Successful plant invasions are attributed to the
interaction between the exotic plants and resident plant communities (Gallien & Carboni 2017). Many
factors influence invasion success, including phenotypic plasticity, dispersal
benefits from destructive foraging activities, wide geographic range,
vegetative reproduction, fire tolerance, and superior competitive ability
compared to native flora (Sharma et al. 2005). Invasive alien plants may
outperform native species due to the absence of natural enemies in the
introduced range (Aguilera 2011). Moreover, invasive plants display
characteristics such as high competitive ability and
efficient resource utilization (Baker 1965; Levine 2000; Petruzzella
et al. 2018).
The introduction of non-native species into new
habitats is largely due to short-term economic benefits (MeNeely
2001), therefore, most of the issues related to invasive plants can be linked
to the intended or unintended consequences of economic activities (Perrings et al. 2002). Globalization and rapid modification
of natural habitats have triggered a massive spread of plant species to areas
outside their native ranges (van Kleunen et al.
2015). On the continental and global scale, species invasions have
diminished the regional distinctiveness of flora and fauna (Vitousek
et al. 1997). At least 10% of the world’s vascular plants (300,000) have the
potential to invade other ecosystems and affect native biota in direct or indirect
ways (Singh et al. 2006). About 18% of the Indian flora are aliens, of which
55% are native to the Americas, 30% to Asia, and to 15% Europe & central
Asia (Nayar 1977; Singh et al. 2010). Many invasive
alien plants confer economic benefits; for example, Lantana camara is
used by several local villages in India who use it for furniture and pulp
making (Kannan et al. 2014); however, it remains a serious invader causing
problems for indigenous flora and significant losses of ecosystem services
compared to benefits.
Many invasive species have severe negative impacts.
For example, Ageratum conyzoides, Chromolaena odorata, and Parthenium hysterophorus are considered invasive transformer
species that lack natural enemies and have fast-spreading ability, allelopathic
effects on other plants, and strong competitiveness with crops, while posing
health hazard to humans and animals (Raghubanshi et
al. 2005; Suthari et al. 2016). Some cultivated alien
species provide food, medicine, fuel, & fodder to local communities (Kull
et al. 2007) and some are used in the preparation of Ayurvedic formulations (Shiddamallayya et al. 2010). It is estimated that as
many as 50% of invasive species, in general, can be classified as ecologically
harmful, based on their actual impacts (Richardson et al. 2000).
There is a need for an authoritative database on alien
and invasive alien plant species to monitor the spread and impact in various
regions and for plan appropriate management strategies. State and regional
floras in the country rarely indicate the native or alien status of the species
listed therein. In some cases, naturalized alien species are treated as native
in floristic documents (Khuroo et al. 2012). Many
species recorded as aliens in different regions of the country, but whose
native range falls within the country’s political boundary, have been excluded
in the present study. Example is the Himalayan Chir
Pine Pinus roxburghi recorded as ’exotic’ in
southern India (Matthew 1969). Similarly, Nyctanthes
arbor-tristis is a Himalayan native introduced for various reasons to the
rest of the country, and many other species that have a within-the-country
origin should also be regarded as alien. The present study reports on alien and
invasive flowering plant species in the Hassan district of Karnataka.
Materials and Methods
Study
area
Hassan district is located in the southern part of
Karnataka state in India, situated between 120 13’, 130
33’ N & 750 33’, 760 38’ E. Hassan district begins at
the base of the steep Western Ghats and continues into the gently rolling
Deccan plateau. The district shows wide variations in climate and vegetation.
The evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in the district are concentrated in
the Western Ghats region of Yeslur and Sakaleshpura, and are commonly known as wet evergreen
tropical rain forest. Dry deciduous forests dominate the plains, also known as
Maidan area (Figure 1).
Data
collection
Extensive floristic surveys were conducted in a
planned manner repeatedly in different seasons to get the maximum
representation of alien and invasive alien species in Hassan District. Plant
samples were collected from natural habitats, agricultural lands, aquatic,
semi-aquatic habitats, marshes, open grasslands, wastelands, roadsides, village
ponds, wetlands, railway tracks, riverbanks, reserve forests, slopes, and
hilltops. The collected specimens were identified with the help of floras (Saldhana & Nicolson 1976; Saldhana
1984, 1996). Plants were categorized by habit (herb, shrub, climber, and tree)
and by habitat (wasteland, cultivated field, aquatic, river & pond banks,
forest, and roadside). The plant names were rechecked and authenticated using
the plant list (www.theplantlist.org\) and GRIN taxonomy site (http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/aboutgrin.html), the synonyms
were removed to avoid taxonomic inflation. We followed biogeographic approach
in assigning the native ranges to all the species (Khuroo
et al. 2012). Only those species whose native ranges fall outside the borders
of the Indian subcontinent, namely ‘alien’ species (CBD 2000) were considered
in this study. To minimize the error of judgement by earlier studies regarding
the alien status, and to cross-check native range records, native ranges for
all species were verified with data from the Germplasm Resources Information
Network (www.grin.org,
http://www.hear.org/pier/,
http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/)
and some other published literature (Murthy et al. 2007; Negi & Hajra 2007; Reddy 2008; Reddy et al. 2008; Singh et al.
2010; Wu et al. 2010; Paul 2010; Khuroo et al. 2012; Pyšek et al. 2012).
To further document their status, alien plant species
were categorized into casual (Ca), naturalized (Nt),
invasive (In), casual or naturalized (Ca/Nt) and
naturalized or invasive (Nt/In) as per the earlier
studies (Richardson et al. 2000; Pysek et al. 2004; Khuroo et al. 2012). Alien species that may flourish and
even reproduce occasionally in an area, but do not form self-replacing
populations, and which rely on repeated introductions for their persistence are
known as ‘casual’ (Ca). Alien species that reproduce and sustain populations
over more than one life cycle and do not necessarily invade natural,
semi-natural or human-made ecosystems are known as ‘naturalized’ (Nt). Naturalized alien species that produce reproductive
offspring, often in large numbers, at considerable distances from parent plants
and thus can spread over a considerable area are referred to as ‘invasive’
(In). Alien species grown or planted and have not yet escaped are referred to
as ‘cultivated’ (Cl). Those casual alien species for which the current evidence
is insufficient to be recognized as naturalized but have the potential to
become naturalized in the near future are referred to as Ca/Nt. Those
naturalized alien species for which the current evidence is insufficient to be
recognized as invasive, but have the potential to become invasive in the near
future are referred to as Nt/In. The purpose of
intentional introduction (food, fodder, ornamental, plantation, horticulture,
and medicinal) of the alien species were recorded from relevant literature
(Sharma & Pandey 1984; Khuroo et al. 2007; Jaryan et al. 2013). Species that have come unintentionally
were categorized as ‘unintentional introductions’ (Ui). Literature including
unpublished (Singh et al. 2010; Kambhar & Kotresha 2011; Prakash & Balasubramanian 2018) and
local communities were consulted for uses. The alien species were analyzed for
taxa statistics, habit, habitat, nativity, purpose of introduction, invasive
status and use-values. For analysis of habit, the number of species in a
particular habit has been divided by the total number of alien species and
multiplied by 100. The same follows for habitat, nativity, and invasion status
analyses. For analyzing the purpose of introduction, number of species
introduced for a particular purpose was divided by the total number of species
for which the purpose of introduction is known (122) and then multiplied by
hundred. We used Microsoft Excel (version 2013) for the data processing.
Results and Discussion
A total of 312 species in 236 genera and under 79
families were documented as invasive alien plant species. They are shown along
with the family name, habit, habitat, nativity, mode of introduction, invasive
status, and uses in Table 1 and Images 1–5. The habit-wise distribution of
alien species is represented in Figure 2.
Of the species 48% (n = 152) belong to just 10
families. Asteraceae was the dominant family with 36 species (23%) followed by
Fabaceae 21 species (13%), Amaranthaceae 17 species
(11%), and Poaceae 16 species (10%). Due to their
dominance, most of these families have a high number of herbs. The dominance of
Fabaceae, which has the ability to fix nitrogen, would aid their colonisation of empty niches. The proportion of alien
species to the total species in the respective family in Hassan district is
highest for Amaranthaceae (85%) followed by
Solanaceae (83.3%) and Asteraceae (47.3%) (Table 2). For India, this is in
agreement with Khuroo et al. (2012) and Jaryan et al. (2013). Similar patterns of family dominance
in alien floras have been reported in studies from Europe (Lambdon
et al. 2008) and China (Weber et al. 2008; Wu et al. 2010). Pysek
(1998) found that these families also have the majority of alien species on a
worldwide scale. In addition, studies on agricultural weeds found that the
Asteraceae and Poaceae families account for the
majority of weeds in terms of numbers (Heywood 1989). This could be due to the
fact that these families have some of the highest species
richness (Rao 1994) and hence have a higher chance of harboring more alien
species. Such a family dominance pattern, as Khuroo
et al. (2012) pointed out, is more of a depiction of sampling effect. These
families are known to have a large number of species, hence an increase in the
number of alien species belonging to these families is expected (Khuroo et al. 2012). In Himachal Pradesh also, proportion
of alien species relative to the total species in Amaranthaceae
(53.3%) followed by Solanaceae (52.9%) and Convolvulaceae (44%) is highest (Jaryan et al. 2013). This is in agreement to the results of
Khuroo et al. (2012) for India and Wu et al. (2010)
for China. In Kashmir, proportion of alien species relative to the total
species in Amaranthaceae (83%) is highest (Khuroo et al. 2007). Interestingly, the Asteraceae and
Convolvulaceae families have the biggest numerical contributions (47.3%) in
this ranking for Hassan district (Table 2). In the top 10 list of families, Poaceae (11.4%) has the lowest alien species (Table 2).
Remarkably, some families comprise only invasive species in Hassan district
(e.g., Balsaminaceae, Impatiens balsamina; Ceratophyllaceae, Ceratophyllum demersum;
Martyniaceae, Martynia
annua). The following genera had highest number of alien species in Hassan
district, Solanum (8 species), Ipomoea (7 species), and Euphorbia
(6 species), Amaranthus, Alternanthera, & Hibiscus (4
species each). These genera also contribute a good number to the alien flora of
India, Europe, and China (Lambdon et al. 2008; Weber
et al. 2008; Wu et al. 2010; Khuroo et al.
2012).
Out of the 36 plant species that are globally recognised as the ‘World’s worst invasive alien species’
(Lowe et al. 2000), 17 are present in India (Khuroo
et al. 2012), of which we report the presence of eight in Hassan district: Eichhornia
crassipes, Spathodea campanulata, Imperata
cylindrica, Opuntia stricta, Clidemia
hirta, Lantana camara, Chromolaena
odorata, and Rubus ellipticus. Pysek et al. (2017) have identified 11 alien plant species
that occur on one-third or more of the globe in terms of the number of regions
where they are naturalized, and on at least 35% of the Earth’s land surface. Of
these, eight plant species are widely distributed in Hassan district: Bidens
pilosa, Chenopodium album, Datura stramonium, Echinochloa crus-galli, Oxalis corniculata, Portulaca oleracea, Ricinus communis, and Sonchus
oleraceus. The impact of these species on indigenous flora and invading
ecosystems, however, has yet to be studied. The distribution of alien plant
species was most abundant in wastelands (34%), followed by cultivated fields
(30%), roadsides (14%), river or pond banks (9%), forests (8%), and aquatic
systems (4%) (Figure 3). This pattern could be caused by the relative degree of
disturbance in various environments, as well as other abiotic and biotic
factors. Disturbance alters the physical environment creating open regions and
disturbed environmental factors, such as, elevated soil nitrate and increased
light and temperature changes, boost seed germination for many species,
including exotics. This could allow alien species to establish themselves in
ecosystems. Several researchers have discovered that the species composition
after disturbance is reasonably predicted based on the seed bank before
disturbance. As a result, sampling the pre-disturbance seed bank can provide
insight into whether exotics will become abundant at a site in the event of a
predicted disturbance (D’antonio & Meyerson
2002).
We categorized
the origin of the reported invasive species into 12 regions, of which tropical
America was found to be the origin for 36% (113 species), followed by tropical
Africa 15% (48 species), South America 13% (41 species), and tropical Asia (28
species). The other regions, contribibute 2–5 % each
to the overall alien flora (Figure 4). The possible explanation for the maximum
proportion of species from tropical America can be the higher propagule
pressure from different countries, such as Brazil and Mexico, to India via
historical trade routes through the human agency of European colonisers and traders, and more or less matching of
similar tropical climate (Khuroo et al. 2012).
Considering that 36% of species originate in the Americas, the findings of this
study are comparable to those reported for China, where 58% of species
originate in the Americas (Wu et al. 2010). However, compared to the current
study, the percentage of American species in the alien flora of Europe is lower
at 34.8% (Lambdon et al. 2008). Because tropical
climates have a higher impact on India and China than on Europe, this distinct
pattern can be explained.
Some alien
plant species, 36% of those listed for Hassan district, are used for medicinal
purposes, followed by vegetables (16%), ornamentals (13%), edible fruits (8%),
fodder (4%), timber (2%), and biofuel (1%). A large number of alien plant
species benefit Indian agriculture, forestry, and pharmaceutical industries, as
well as the Indian medical system (Ayurveda) (Shiddamallayya
et al. 2010). Ornamental plants are an important component of the urban
environment, as well as a substantial source of invasive species as a result of
escapes from private or public gardens (Pyek & Chytr 2014; Pergl et al. 2016).
Many taxa first escape and spread in spatially constrained areas around
gardens, before spreading and colonising more distant
vegetation. The combined impacts of local popularity of a specific taxon,
regardless of invasion status, adequate natural & cultural conditions,
abundant propagation in cultivation, and easy semi-spontaneous establishment in
gardens may result in naturalisation foci (Petrik et
al. 2019). Although the majority of alien species grown as garden ornamentals
can only survive when planted under careful management, a significant
proportion of them manage to escape and establish themselves outside of human
control (Pergl et al. 2016). Pyek
et al. (2012) found that 56% of the taxa in the Czech Republic’s alien flora
were recruited from escaping ornamental plants. Similarly, in the Karnataka
district of Gadag, roughly 15% of alien species are
employed as ornamentals (Kambhar & Kotresha 2011).
We found that 122 species were intentionally introduced,
while the rest are unintentional introductions. The majority of species were
introduced for ornamental purposes (47%), followed by food (30%), horticulture
(10%), medicinal (9%), fodder (4%), and plantation (2%). The invasion status
categorization of Hassan is represented in Figure 5.
Hassan district is the reservoir of rich flora, and is
a significant segment of the global biodiversity hotspot of Western Ghats.
Approximately 1,700 vascular plant species found in Hassan district accounts
for 75% of the plant species of Karnataka state and 10% of India, which
indicates the richness of biological diversity (Saldhana
& Nicolson 1978). However, almost 18.4% of Hassan district flora comprises
of alien species, which is higher than the 8% of alien plants in Western Ghats
region of Karnataka and 6.5% alien species of Karnataka state (Ganeshaiah et al. 2002; Rao 2012). The majority of the
alien species belong to the family Asteraceae, and it also contributed most of
the exotic weed species in India (Singh et al. 2010; Kambhar
& Kotresha 2011; Khuroo
et al. 2012).
In concordance with the alien floras of Europe (Lambdon et al. 2008) and China (Wu et al. 2010),
Asteraceae is the most species-rich family in the alien flora of India. At the
global level, Pysek (1998) found these families to be
having the majority of alien species. Studies on agricultural weeds concluded
that, numerically, most weeds come from the families Asteraceae (Heywood 1989).
Notably, Asteraceae is amongst the largest family in terms of species richness
(Rao 1994). Hence, the possibility of contributing more to alien species is
also higher (Mack & Erneberg 2002). The
introduction of alien plants for ornamental purpose is common across the globe
and especially species belongs to the genera Amaranthus, Cascabela,
Euphorbia, Ipomoea, and Solanum are some of the commonly preferred
ornamental alien species reported in India (Khuroo et
al. 2012). Alternanthera philoxeroides
powerful aquatic pest has been found in the lakes, ponds, puddles and waterways
was considered a highly invasive and spread throughout the country (Maheshwari
1965). Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata,
and Hyptis suaveolens
were the most concerning alien invasive plant species in terms of rapid growth,
higher density, and frequency in forest areas.
Within the forest, these species were so gregarious in
their growth and most ecologically destructive invaders in the Western Ghats
region (Muniappan & Viraktamath
1993). The escape of these species into nature, on the other hand, may have
serious consequences. Chromolaena odorata
is an invasive transformer species in the Old World (Richardson et al. 2000),
owing to its lack of natural enemies. It prefers areas of natural or
human-induced disturbance, but it can even infiltrate untouched terrain.
Subsistence and commercial agriculture, including crops and plantations,
grazing pastures, and silviculture, are all affected by Chromolaena
odorata. Awanyo et al. (2011) mentioned that the
highly invasive Chromolaena odorata
grows aggressively and suppresses other vegetation by easily forming a thick
cover in a very short time. In another study, the high allelopathic properties
of this weed support its gaining dominance in vegetation and in replacing other
aggressive invaders such as Lantana camara and Imperata
cylindrica in Asia and Africa (Mandal & Joshi 2014). The most common
species of invasives in cultivated areas were Celosia argentea and Argemone
mexicana, which were so aggressive and
opportunistic in invasion that they could even penetrate flourishing crops if
regular weeding was neglected. Ageratum conyzoides,
Cassia tora, Emilia sonchifolia,
Oxalis corniculata, Scoparia dulci,
Sonchus oleraceous, and Tridax
procumbens are some of the other invasive plant species commonly found in
cultivated fields that require constant weeding in practices and act as vectors
for transmitting pathogens. Parasitic dodders (Cuscuta
spp.) are becoming a severe concern in south Indian agroecosystems, and are
increasingly being detected on a wide range of plants across the country.
Ipomoea carnea,
Pistia stratiotes, and Eichhornia
crassipes have become a nuisance in aquatic ecosystems. They cause
hindrance and block drainage and reduces the aesthetic value of open water
bodies (Kambhar & Kotresha
2011). The invasion of Eichhornia crassipes into freshwater systems
poses a threat to many human uses. Boating access, navigability, and
recreation, as well as pipe systems for agriculture, industry, and municipal
water supply, are the most direct impacts. Fish catchability and access to
fishing grounds are also impacted. Furthermore, Eichhornia crassipes
evapotranspiration rates can be higher than open-water evaporation rates. This
can be a major issue in water-scarce places and small bodies of water. If it
causes changes in fish community composition or modifies the catchability of
fished species, it can have a significant impact on fishery (Villamagna & Murphy 2010).
Aside from the negative effects on native flora and
the economy, certain alien species were useful to locals. Leafy vegetables
included Portulaca oleracea, Chenopodium album, Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Digera muricata, and Solanum americanum.
In its invaded area in India, Prosopis juliflora
grows in forests, wastelands, and at the edges of crop fields, forming pure
stands. Farmers retain trees in their fields because their crops grow better
under them than in open fields, but they also provide fuel, fodder, charcoal,
and lumber (Kaur et al. 2012). Invasive alien plant inventories are one of the
most important components for assessing biodiversity and threats to endangered
species, as well as providing source data for developing relevant indicators (Pyek et al. 2012; van Kleunen et
al. 2015; Latombe et al. 2017). Identifying invasive
alien plant species that pose prospective or future threats while they are
still in the early stages of invasion is a serious prediction challenge (Lambdon et al. 2008). The findings of this study will raise
awareness of invasive alien plants, and the release of this list will encourage
more data collection so that the effects of these species can be minimized.
Conclusion
The present paper provides
information on the status of alien plant species in Hassan district. It is
revealed that over 18% of Hassan district flora comprises of alien species,
which is higher than the 8% for the Western Ghats region of Karnataka and 6.5%
of alien species in Karnataka state. A majority of the species are of South
American origin and have been introduced for ornamental purposes. Our study
indicated that the extent and present share of alien species and their
naturalization cannot be considered safe for native and endemic flora. This is
especially true of Hassan district, which is part of the Western Ghats
‘hotspot’ belt and is globally designated for priority of conservational
activities. As most forests of the Western Ghats are already badly affected by
the invasion of alien plant species, the need for effective control must be
emphasized. This compiled work will fill a significant information gap
regarding alien species, and will aid in the development of informed monitoring
and management strategies, always preserving site biodiversity and peoples’ cultural
diversity in mind, rather than simply the scale of bio-invasion.
Table 1.
Alien plant species of Hassan District, their source region and uses.
|
|
Accepted name of species |
Family |
Habit |
Longevity |
Habitat |
Nativity |
Purpose of introduction |
Invasive status |
Uses |
|
1 |
Abelmoschus
esculentus (L.) Moench |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
2 |
Acacia
auriculiformis L. |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
AU |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
W |
|
3 |
Acacia
farnesiana (L.) Willd. |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
4 |
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
BR |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
5 |
Achyranthes
aspera L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
W |
AS |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
6 |
Achyranthes
bidentata Blume |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
P |
AR |
AS |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
7 |
Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
8 |
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
9 |
Aeschynomene indica
L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
AQ |
AU |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
10 |
Agave
americana L. |
Asparagaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
R |
|
11 |
Agave
sisalana Perrine. |
Asparagaceae |
S |
P |
W |
MX |
Ui |
Cl |
R |
|
12 |
Ageratum
conyzoides (L.) L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
13 |
Ageratum
houstonianum Mill. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
14 |
Albizia
lebbeck Benth. |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
F |
AS |
Pl |
Nt |
W |
|
15 |
Albizia
saman (Jacq.) Merr. |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
W |
|
16 |
Allamanda
cathartica L. |
Apocynaceae |
C |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
17 |
Allium
cepa L. |
Amaryllidaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
18 |
Allium
sativum L. |
Amaryllidaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
19 |
Aloe
vera (L.) Burm.f. |
Liliaceae |
H |
P |
W |
MR |
M |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
20 |
Alternanthera
paronychioides A.St.-Hil. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
21 |
Alternanthera
philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
Nk |
|
22 |
Alternanthera
pungens Kunth |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
23 |
Alternanthera
sessilis (L.)
R.Br. ex DC. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
24 |
Amaranthus
caudatus L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
In |
V |
|
25 |
Amaranthus
spinosus L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
26 |
Amaranthus
tricolor L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Ca |
V |
|
27 |
Amaranthus
viridis L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
28 |
Ammannia baccifera L. |
Lythraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
AU |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
29 |
Anacardium
occidentale L. |
Anacardiaceae |
T |
P |
W |
BR |
Ht |
Nt |
M |
|
30 |
Anagallis
arvensis L. |
Primulaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
EU |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
31 |
Ananas
comosus (L.) Merr. |
Bromeliaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
32 |
Anethum
graveolens L. |
Apiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Or |
Nt |
V |
|
33 |
Annona
muricata L. |
Annonaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
34 |
Annona
reticulata L. |
Annonaceae |
T |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
35 |
Annona
squamosa L. |
Annonaceae |
T |
P |
F |
WI |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
36 |
Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. |
Polygonaceae |
C |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
37 |
Arachis
hypogaea L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
BR |
Fd |
Cl |
Ol |
|
38 |
Areca
catechu L. |
Arecaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
AS |
Pl |
Nt |
En |
|
39 |
Argemone
mexicana L. |
Papaveraceae |
H |
A |
W |
NAM |
M |
In |
M |
|
40 |
Aristolochia littoralis Parodi |
Aristolochiaceae |
H |
P |
W |
BR |
Ui |
Cl |
Or |
|
41 |
Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.)
Hochst. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
42 |
Artocarpus
altilis
(Parkinson ex F.A.Zorn) Fosberg |
Moraceae |
T |
P |
W |
SEA |
Fd |
Cl |
Ef |
|
43 |
Asclepias
curassavica L. |
Apocynaceae |
H |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
44 |
Averrhoa
bilimbi L. |
Oxalidaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Cl |
Ef |
|
45 |
Averrhoa
carambola L. |
Oxalidaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Cl |
Ef |
|
46 |
Bacopa
monnieri Pennell |
Scrophulariaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
47 |
Balanites
aegyptiaca (L.) Delile |
Zygophyllaceae |
S |
P |
F |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
48 |
Bambusa vulgaris
Schrad. |
Poaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
SEA |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
49 |
Basella
alba L. |
Basellaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
TAF |
M |
Nt |
M |
|
50 |
Benincasa hispida (Thunb.)
Cogn. |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
SEA |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
51 |
Beta
vulgaris L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
EU |
Ht |
Cl |
V |
|
52 |
Bidens
biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
53 |
Bidens
pilosa L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
54 |
Biophytum sensitivum DC. |
Oxalidaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SEA |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
55 |
Bixa
orellana L. |
Bixaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
BR |
Ui |
Cl |
M |
|
56 |
Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
57 |
Blumea lacera (Burm.f.)
DC. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
58 |
Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
59 |
Bougainvillea
spectabilis Willd. |
Nyctaginaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
60 |
Brassica
nigra (L.) K.Koch |
Brassicaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
EU |
Fd |
Cl |
Ol |
|
61 |
Brassica
oleracea L. |
Brassicaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
EU |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
62 |
Breynia vitis-idea (Burn.f.)
Fisch |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
A |
CF |
WI |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
63 |
Brugmansia suaveolens Bercht.
& K.Presl. |
Solanaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
BR |
UI |
Nt |
Nk |
|
64 |
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken |
Crassulaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
65 |
Caesalpinia
pulcherrima (L.) Sw. |
Caesalpiniaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
66 |
Cajanus
cajan (L.) Millsp. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
ES |
|
67 |
Caladium
bicolor (Aiton) Vent. |
Araceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
68 |
Callistemon
viminalis (Sol. ex
Gaertn.) G.Don
ex Loudon |
Myrtaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
AU |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
69 |
Calotropis
gigantea (L.) Dryand. |
Apocynaceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
70 |
Camellia
sinensis (L.) Kuntze |
Theaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Ca/Nt |
Br |
|
71 |
Canna
indica L. |
Cannaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
TAM |
M |
Nt |
M |
|
72 |
Capsicum
annuum L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
MX |
Ht |
Cl |
V |
|
73 |
Cardiospermum
halicacabum L. |
Sapindaceae |
C |
P |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
74 |
Carica papaya
L. |
Caricaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
75 |
Carmona
retusa (Vahl) Masamune |
Boraginaceae |
H |
A |
F |
SEA |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
76 |
Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold |
Apocynaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
77 |
Cassia
fistula L. |
Caesalpiniaceae |
T |
P |
F |
AS |
M |
Nt |
M |
|
78 |
Cassytha
filiformis L. |
Lauraceae |
C |
P |
P |
AU |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
79 |
Casuarina
equisetifolia L. |
Casuarinaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
W |
|
80 |
Catharanthus
pusillus (Murray) G.Don |
Apocynaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
81 |
Catharanthus
roseus (L.) G.Don |
Apocynaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
82 |
Celosia
argentea L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Fd |
Ca |
V |
|
83 |
Ceratophyllum demersum L. |
Ceratophyllaceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
NAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
84 |
Cereus
repandus (L.)
Mill. |
Cactaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
85 |
Cestrum
nocturnum L. |
Solanaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
WI |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
86 |
Chenopodium
album L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
EU |
Fd |
In |
V |
|
87 |
Chenopodium
ambrosioides L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
88 |
Chloris
barbata Sw. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Fo |
|
89 |
Chromolaena odorata (L.)
RM.King & H.Rob. |
Asteraceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
90 |
Cicer
arietinum L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Cl |
Es |
|
91 |
Citrullus
lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
Ef |
|
92 |
Cleome
monophylla L. |
Cleomaceae |
H |
A |
AR |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
93 |
Cleome
viscosa L. |
Cleomaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
94 |
Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don |
Melastomataceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
95 |
Clitoria ternatea L. |
Fabaceae |
C |
A |
W |
TAM |
M |
Nt |
M |
|
96 |
Coffea
arabica L. |
Rubiaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
Br |
|
97 |
Coldenia
procumbens L. |
Boraginaceae |
H |
A |
W |
NAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
98 |
Colocasia
esculenta (L.) Schott |
Araceae |
H |
A |
RB |
AS |
UI |
Nt |
V |
|
99 |
Corchorus
aestuans L. |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
100 |
Corchorus
trilocularis L. |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
101 |
Coriandrum
sativum L. |
Apiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
102 |
Cosmos
bipinnatus Cav. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Nt/In |
Nk |
|
103 |
Couroupita guianensis Aubl. |
Lecythidaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
SAM |
Ui |
Cl |
M |
|
104 |
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.)S.Moore |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
105 |
Crotalaria
pallida Aiton |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
106 |
Crotalaria
retusa L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
107 |
Croton
bonplandianus Baill. |
Euphorbiaceae |
H |
P |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
108 |
Cucumis
melo L. |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
AS |
Fd |
Cl |
Ef |
|
109 |
Cucurbita
maxima Duchesne |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
110 |
Cucurbita
pepo L. |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
111 |
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
P |
P |
MR |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
112 |
Cyanthillium cinereum
(L.) H.Rob. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
AS |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
113 |
Cymbopogon
citratus (DC.) Stapf |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
SEA |
Ui |
Ca |
Ol |
|
114 |
Cyperus
difformis L. |
Cyperaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
115 |
Cyperus
iria L. |
Cyperaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
116 |
Cyperus
rotundus L. |
Cyperaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
117 |
Datura
metel L. |
Solanaceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
118 |
Datura
stramonium L. |
Solanaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
119 |
Daucus
carota L. |
Apiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
NAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
120 |
Delonix regia (Hook.)
Raf. |
Fabaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAF |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
121 |
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.)
Nees |
Poaceae |
S |
P |
F |
AS |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
122 |
Dentella repens
(L.) J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. |
Rubiaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
AU |
UI |
Nt |
Nk |
|
123 |
Dicoma
tomentosa Cass. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
124 |
Digera muricata
(L.) Mart. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
NAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
125 |
Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. |
Poaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
126 |
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl)
Panz. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
NK |
|
127 |
Dioscorea bulbifera L. |
Dioscoreaceae |
C |
P |
F |
AS |
M |
Nt |
V |
|
128 |
Duranta erecta L. |
Verbenaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
129 |
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
EU |
Fo |
Nt |
Fo |
|
130 |
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fo |
Nt |
Fo |
|
131 |
Echinops echinatus Roxb. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
132 |
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
133 |
Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) Solms |
Pontederiaceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
TAM |
Or |
In |
Nk |
|
134 |
Eleocharis
atropurpurea (Retz.) J.Presl & C.Presl |
Cyperaceae |
H |
A |
AQ |
SAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
135 |
Emilia
sonchifolia (L.) DC.
ex DC. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
136 |
Eragrostis papposa (Desf.
ex Roem. & Schult.) Steud. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
137 |
Eryngium
foetidum L. |
Apiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
UI |
Nt/In |
V |
|
138 |
Eucalyptus
citriodora Hk |
Myrtaceae |
T |
P |
W |
AU |
Pl |
Cl |
Ol |
|
139 |
Euphorbia
heterophylla L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Or |
|
140 |
Euphorbia
hirta L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
141 |
Euphorbia
pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
P |
W |
MX |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
142 |
Euphorbia
thymifolia L |
Euphorbiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
143 |
Euphorbia
tirucalli L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
144 |
Euphorbia
umbellata (Pax) Bruyns. |
Euphorbiacaeae |
S |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
145 |
Ficus
carica L. |
Moraceae |
T |
P |
CF |
EU |
Fd |
Nt |
Ef |
|
146 |
Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl |
Cyperaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
AS |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
147 |
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill. |
Apiaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
MR |
Fd |
Cl |
Es |
|
148 |
Galinsoga
parviflora Cav. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
149 |
Glossocardia bosvallia (L.f.)
DC. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
F |
WI |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
150 |
Gnaphalium
polycaulon Pers. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
151 |
Gomphrena
celosioides Mart. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
152 |
Gomphrena
globosa L. |
Amaranthaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
153 |
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
154 |
Grevillea
robusta A.Cunn. ex
R.Br. |
Proteaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
AU |
Pl |
Cl |
W |
|
155 |
Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Ui |
Cl |
Ol |
|
156 |
Hamelia patens
Jacq |
Rubiaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
BR |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
157 |
Harrisia bonplandii (Parm.) Britton & Rose |
Cactaceae |
S |
P |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
158 |
Helianthus
annuus L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
NAM |
Ui |
Cl |
Ol |
|
159 |
Hibiscus
cannabinus L. |
Malvaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
160 |
Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis L. |
Malvaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
AS |
Or |
Ca |
Or |
|
161 |
Hibiscus
sabdariffa L. |
Malvaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
V |
|
162 |
Hibiscus
trionum L. |
Malvaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
163 |
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. |
Lamiaceae |
H |
P |
AR |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
164 |
Impatiens
balsamina L. |
Balsaminaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
165 |
Imperata
cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. |
Poaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
R |
|
166 |
Indigofera
linifolia (L.f.) Retz. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
SAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
167 |
Indigofera
linnaei Ali |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
F |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
168 |
Ipomoea
alba L. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
W |
MX |
Ui |
Cl |
Nk |
|
169 |
Ipomoea
batatas (L.) Lam. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
BR |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
170 |
Ipomoea
cairica (L.)
Sweet |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
171 |
Ipomoea
eriocarpa R. Br. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
W |
TAF |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
172 |
Ipomoea
hederifolia L. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
173 |
Ipomoea
nil (L.) Roth |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
A |
W |
NAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
174 |
Ipomoea
obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. |
Convolvulaceae |
C |
P |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
175 |
Jatropha
curcas L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Nt |
Bf |
|
176 |
Jatropha
gossypifolia L. |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Bf |
|
177 |
Kigelia pinnata
DC |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
F |
TAF |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
178 |
Lablab
purpureus (L.)
Sweet |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
Ef |
|
179 |
Lagascea mollis Cav. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
180 |
Lagenaria
siceraria (Molina) Standl. |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
AR |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
181 |
Lantana
camara L. |
Verbenaceae |
S |
P |
F |
TAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
182 |
Lawsonia inermis L. |
Lythraceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
183 |
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. |
Lamiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
184 |
Linum usitatissimum L. |
Linaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
EU |
Fd |
Cl |
Es |
|
185 |
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara |
Onagraceae |
H |
A |
AQ |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
186 |
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven |
Onagraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
187 |
Ludwigia perennis
L. |
Onagraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
188 |
Macrotyloma
uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
189 |
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
190 |
Manihot
esculenta Crantz. |
Euphorbiaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
191 |
Manihot
glaziovii Muell. Arg. |
Euphorbiaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
BR |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
192 |
Manilkara
zapota (L.) P.Royen |
Sapotaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
193 |
Martynia annua L. |
Martyniaceae |
H |
P |
W |
NAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
194 |
Mecardonia
procumbens (Mill.) Small |
Plantaginaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
195 |
Melia
azedarach L. |
Meliaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
AS |
M |
Nt |
W |
|
196 |
Melochia corchorifolia L. |
Sterculiaceae |
H |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
197 |
Mentha
arvensis L. |
Lamiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
AS |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
198 |
Merremia gangetica Cufod. |
Convolvulaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
199 |
Millingtonia
hortensis L. f. |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
AS |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
200 |
Mimosa
pudica L. |
Mimosaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
BR |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
201 |
Mirabilis
jalapa L. |
Nyctaginaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Or |
Nt |
Or |
|
202 |
Monochoria
vaginalis (Burm.f.) C.Presl. |
Pontederiaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
203 |
Moringa
oleifera Lam. |
Moringaceae |
T |
P |
CF |
NAM |
Ht |
Ca/Nt |
V |
|
204 |
Morus
alba L. |
Moraceae |
S |
P |
CF |
AS |
Ht |
Nt |
Ef |
|
205 |
Muntingia calabura L. |
Muntingiaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Ef |
|
206 |
Mussaenda frondosa L. |
Rubiaceae |
S |
P |
F |
TAF |
Ui |
Cl |
M |
|
207 |
Nerium
oleander L. |
Apocynaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
EU |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
208 |
Nicandra
physalodes (L.) Gaertn. |
Solanaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Or |
Ca |
M |
|
209 |
Ocimum americanum L. |
Lamiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
210 |
Opuntia
ficus-indica (L.)
Mill. |
Cactaceae |
S |
P |
F |
NAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
Ef |
|
211 |
Opuntia
stricta Haw. Var. dillenii
(Ker Gawl.) |
Cactaceae |
S |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Ef |
|
212 |
Oxalis
corniculata L. |
Oxalidiaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
EU |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
213 |
Oxalis
latifolia Kunth |
Oxalidaceae |
H |
A |
W |
BR |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
214 |
Pandanus
odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze |
Pandanaceae |
S |
P |
RB |
SEA |
Ui |
Cl |
M |
|
215 |
Parthenium
hysterophorus L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
216 |
Passiflora
foetida L. |
Passifloraceae |
C |
P |
W |
SAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
217 |
Passiflora
subpeltata Ortega |
Passifloraceae |
C |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Nk |
|
218 |
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne |
Caesalpiniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
AS |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
W |
|
219 |
Persicaria
hydropiper (L.) Delarbre |
Polygonaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
EU |
Fd |
In |
Nk |
|
220 |
Phaseolus
vulgaris L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
Es |
|
221 |
Phoenix
sylvestris (L.) Roxb. |
Arecaceae |
T |
P |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Ef |
|
222 |
Phyla
nodiflora (L.)
Greene |
Verbenaceae |
H |
A |
AQ |
SAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
223 |
Phyllanthus
acidus (L.) Skeels |
Phyllanthaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
BR |
Ui |
Cl |
Ef |
|
224 |
Phyllanthus
amarus Schumach.
& Thonn. |
Phyllanthaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
225 |
Physalis
minima L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
A |
W |
NAM |
M |
In |
Ef |
|
226 |
Pistia
stratiotes L. |
Araceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
227 |
Pisum
sativum L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ht |
Cl |
Es |
|
228 |
Pithecellobium
dulce (Roxb.) Benth. |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Ef |
|
229 |
Plumbago
zeylanica L. |
Plumbaginaceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAF |
Or |
Cl |
M |
|
230 |
Plumeria
alba L. |
Apocynaceae |
T |
P |
W |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
231 |
Portulaca
oleracea L |
Portulacaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Fd |
In |
V |
|
232 |
Portulaca
pilosa L. |
Portulacaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
233 |
Portulaca
quadrifida L. |
Portulacaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
234 |
Potamogeton nodosus Poir. |
Potamogetonaceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
235 |
Prosopis
juliflora (S.w.) DC |
Mimosaceae |
T |
P |
W |
TAM |
UI |
Nt |
M |
|
236 |
Psidium
guajava L. |
Myrtaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Ht |
Nt |
Ef |
|
237 |
Punica
granatum L. |
Lythraceae |
T |
P |
CF |
AS |
Ht |
Cl |
Ef |
|
238 |
Pyrostegia venusta (Ker Gawl.)
Miers |
Bignoniaceae |
C |
P |
AR |
BR |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
239 |
Raphanus
sativus L. |
Brassicaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
240 |
Ricinus
communis L |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
A |
W |
TAF |
Fd |
In |
Ol |
|
241 |
Rosa
multiflora Thunb. |
Rosaceae |
S |
P |
RB |
AS |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
242 |
Rotala densiflora (Roth) Koehne |
Lythraceae |
H |
A |
RB |
AS |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
243 |
Rubia
cordifolia L. |
Rubiaceae |
H |
P |
F |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
244 |
Rubus
ellipticus Smith |
Rosaceae |
S |
P |
RB |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
Ef |
|
245 |
Ruellia prostrata Poir. |
Acanthaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
246 |
Ruta
graveolens L. |
Rutaceae |
H |
A |
W |
MR |
M |
Cl |
M |
|
247 |
Saccharum
spontaneum L. |
Poaceae |
S |
P |
RB |
SEA |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
248 |
Salvia
coccinea Buc’hoz ex Etl. |
Lamiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
UI |
Ca |
Nk |
|
249 |
Scoparia
dulcis L. |
Plantaginaceae |
H |
A |
RB |
TAM |
M |
In |
Fo |
|
250 |
Sechium
edule (Jacq.) Sw. |
Cucurbitaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
Cl |
V |
|
251 |
Senna
alata (L.) Roxb. |
Caesalpiniaceae |
S |
A |
W |
WI |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
252 |
Senna
occidentalis (L.) Link |
Caesalpiniaceae |
S |
P |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
253 |
Senna
sophera (L.) Roxb. |
Caesalpiniaceae |
H |
A |
AR |
WI |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
254 |
Senna
surattensis (Burm.f.) H.S.Irwin
& Barneby |
Caesalpiniaceae |
T |
P |
F |
SEA |
Ui |
Cl |
Nk |
|
255 |
Senna
tora (L.) Roxb. |
Caesalpiniaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
256 |
Sesamum
indicum L. |
Pedaliaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Ui |
Cl |
Es |
|
257 |
Sesbania
sesban (L.) |
Fabaceae |
T |
P |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
Nt |
V |
|
258 |
Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fo |
In |
Fo |
|
259 |
Sida acuta Burm.f. |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
260 |
Sida cordata
(Burm. f.) Waalk. |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
AR |
SAM |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
261 |
Siegesbeckia orientalis L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
AR |
TAF |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
262 |
Simarouba
glauca DC. |
Simaroubaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
SAM |
Pl |
Cl |
M |
|
263 |
Solanum
americanum Mill. |
Solanaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
264 |
Solanum
erianthum D.Don |
Solanaceae |
H |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
265 |
Solanum
lycopersicum L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
V |
|
266 |
Solanum
melongena L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAF |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
267 |
Solanum
pimpinellifolium L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
A |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
Cl |
V |
|
268 |
Solanum
seaforthianum Andrews |
Solanaceae |
C |
P |
W |
BR |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
269 |
Solanum
torvum Sw. |
Solanaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
WI |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
270 |
Solanum
tuberosum L. |
Solanaceae |
H |
P |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
271 |
Sonchus
oleraceus (L.) L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
AR |
MR |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
272 |
Sonchus
wightianus DC. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
EU |
Ui |
Nt/In |
M |
|
273 |
Spathodea campanulata Beauv. |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAF |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
274 |
Spermacoce hispida L. |
Rubiaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
275 |
Sphagneticola calendulacea (L.) Pruski |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
AU |
Ui |
Nt |
Or |
|
276 |
Sporobolus
diander (Retz.)
P. Beauv. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
AS |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
277 |
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl |
Verbenaceae |
S |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
278 |
Stachytarpheta mutabilis (Jacq.) Vahl. |
Verbenaceae |
S |
P |
W |
SAM |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
Nk |
|
279 |
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston |
Fabaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
280 |
Swietenia
mahagoni (L.)
Jack. |
Meliaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
WI |
Ui |
Nt |
M |
|
281 |
Synadenium grantii Hook. f. |
Euphorbiaceae |
S |
P |
W |
TAM |
Or |
In |
M |
|
282 |
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
WI |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
283 |
Tabebuia
aurea (Silva Manso)
Benth. & Hook.f. ex S.Moore |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Ca/Nt |
Or |
|
284 |
Tabebuia
rosea (Bertol.) Bertero ex A.DC. |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
285 |
Tagetes
erecta L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
P |
CF |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
286 |
Tagetes
patula L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
W |
MX |
Or |
Ca |
Or |
|
287 |
Talinum
portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf. |
Portulacaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Nt/In |
V |
|
288 |
Tamarindus
indica L. |
Fabaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAF |
Ht |
Ca/Nt |
Ef |
|
289 |
Tecoma capensis
(Thunb.) Lindl. |
Bignoniaceae |
S |
P |
CF |
EU |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
290 |
Tecoma gaudichandi DC. |
Bignoniaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
SAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
291 |
Tecoma stans
(L.) Juss. ex Kunth |
Bignoniaceae |
T |
P |
AR |
TAM |
Or |
Cl |
Or |
|
292 |
Thunbergia
alata Bojer
ex Sims |
Acanthaceae |
C |
P |
AR |
TAF |
Or |
In |
Or |
|
293 |
Tithonia
diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray |
Asteraceae |
S |
A |
W |
MX |
Or |
In |
Or |
|
294 |
Torenia
fournieri Linden
ex E. Fourn. |
Linderniaceae |
H |
P |
W |
AU |
Ui |
In |
Or |
|
295 |
Tradescantia
spathacea Sw. |
Commelinaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
Cl |
Or |
|
296 |
Trapa
natans L. |
Lythraceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
EU |
Fd |
In |
Ef |
|
297 |
Tribulus
terrestris L. |
Zygophyllaceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
298 |
Tridax
procumbens (L.) L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
P |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
299 |
Trigonella
foenum-graecum L. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
MR |
Fd |
Cl |
Es |
|
300 |
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. |
Malvaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
301 |
Typha
angustifolia L. |
Typhaceae |
H |
P |
RB |
EU |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
302 |
Typha
domingensis Pers |
Typhaceae |
H |
P |
AQ |
SAM |
Ui |
In |
Nk |
|
303 |
Urena
lobata L. |
Malvaceae |
S |
P |
AR |
TAF |
Ui |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
304 |
Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
W |
TAF |
Ui |
In |
Fo |
|
305 |
Vallisneria
spiralis L. |
Hydrocharitaceae |
H |
A |
AQ |
MR |
Ui |
Nt/In |
Nk |
|
306 |
Vigna
trilobata (L.) Verdc. |
Fabaceae |
C |
A |
W |
TAF |
UI |
Nt |
M |
|
307 |
Vigna
umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi |
Fabaceae |
C |
A |
CF |
SEA |
Ui |
Nt/In |
Es |
|
308 |
Vigna
unguiculata (L.) Walp. |
Fabaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
TAM |
Fd |
Cl |
V |
|
309 |
Vitex
negundo L. |
Verbenaceae |
S |
P |
W |
AS |
UI |
Ca/Nt |
M |
|
310 |
Waltheria indica L. |
Sterculiaceae |
H |
P |
F |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
311 |
Xanthium
strumarium L. |
Asteraceae |
H |
A |
AR |
TAM |
Ui |
In |
M |
|
312 |
Zea mays
L. |
Poaceae |
H |
A |
CF |
SAM |
Fd |
Cl |
Fo, V |
Habit:
H—Herb | S—Shrub | C—Climber | T—Tree
| Longevity: A—Annual | P—Perennial |
Habitat: W—Wasteland | CF—Cultivated fields |
RB—River or pond banks | F—Forests | AR—Roadsides
| AQ—Aquatic | P—Parasite | Nativity:
AS—Tropical Asia | AU—Australia | BR—Brazil |
EU—Europe | MG—Madagascar; MR—Mediterranean region |
MX—Mexico | NAM—North America | SAM—South
America | SEA—South East Asia (Including Malaysia, Philippines
& Indonesia); TAF—Tropical Africa | TAM—Tropical
America | WI—West Indies | Mode of introduction to
India: Fd—Food | Fo—Fodder | M—Medicine | O—Ornamental
| Pl—Plantation | Ht—Horticultural;
Ui—Unintentional | Status: Cl—Cultivated | Ca—Casual
| Nt—Naturalized | In—Invasive
| Ca/Nt—Casual or Naturalized | Nt/In—Naturalized or Invasive | Uses: Bf—Biofuel
| Br—Beverages | Ef—Edible fruit | Es—Edible
seed | Fo—Fodder | M—Medicinal
| Nk—Not known | Ol—Oil | Or—Ornamental; R—Rope
making | V—Vegetable | W—Wood.
Table 2.
Relative contribution of alien species in the top 10 alien species rich
families in Hassan district of Karnataka.
|
|
Family |
Alien
species |
Total
species in Hassan district |
Alien
plants (%) |
|
1 |
Amaranthaceae |
17 |
20 |
85 |
|
2 |
Solanaceae |
15 |
18 |
83.3 |
|
3 |
Asteraceae |
36 |
76 |
47.3 |
|
4 |
Convolvulaceae |
9 |
19 |
47.3 |
|
5 |
Malvaceae |
12 |
27 |
44.4 |
|
6 |
Caesalpinaceae |
8 |
23 |
34.7 |
|
7 |
Fabaceae |
21 |
97 |
33.3 |
|
8 |
Euphorbiaceae |
14 |
51 |
27.4 |
|
9 |
Apocyanaceae |
8 |
24 |
25 |
|
10 |
Poaceae |
16 |
140 |
11.4 |
For graphs
and images—click here for full PDF.
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