Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2022 | 14(7): 21388–21395
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893
(Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5813.14.7.21388-21395
#5813 | Received 25 February 2020 | Final
received 06 May 2022 | Finally accepted 12 July 2022
New queen? Evidence of a long-living Jaguar Panthera
onca (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) in Tikal
National Park, Guatemala
Carlos A. Gaitán 1,
Manolo J. García 2, M. André Sandoval-Lemus 3, Vivian R.
González-Castillo 4,
Gerber D. Guzmán-Flores
5 & Cristel
M. Pineda 6
1–5 Centro de Estudios
Conservacionistas –CECON-, Facultad
de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacia, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida
La Reforma 0-63 zona 10, 01010, Ciudad de Guatemala,
Guatemala.
6 Unidad de Biología,
Parque Nacional Tikal, Petén, Guatemala.
1 gaitan.carlos@usac.edu.gt
(corresponding author), 2 garcia.manolo@usac.edu.gt, 3 mynor.biolo@alumno.usac.edu.gt,
4 gonzalez.vivian@usac.edu.gt, 5 guzman.gerber@usac.edu.gt,
6 cristelpineda@hotmail.com
Abstract: Despite the abundant literature
on the Jaguar Panthera onca,
several aspects of its natural history and ecology such as longevity and
residency of wild individuals are still little studied and poorly known. We
conducted a camera trapping study in Tikal National Park, Guatemala, during the
dry season and early rainy season from April to July 2018. We compared our
results with results of previous studies and thereby came across a presumably female
adult individual that was recorded in 2009 and again during our survey. We
therefore assume that this virtual female is a potential long-term resident
Jaguar in this core zone of the Selva Maya, one of
the largest and well-conserved forests in the Neotropics
and a priority area for the conservation of this species. We recommend
implementing systematic and long-termed studies in Guatemala as a tool for the
evaluation and management of the species, and to monitor the effectiveness of
protected and priority areas in order to ensure the conservation of the Jaguar.
Keywords: Longevity, Maya Biosphere
Reserve, protected areas management, residency, Selva
Maya, wildlife management.
Editor: Angie Appel, Wild Cat Network,
Germany. Date of publication: 26 July 2022
(online & print)
Citation: Gaitan, C.A., M.J. Garcia, M.A.
Sandoval-Lemus, V.R. Gonzalez-Castillo, G.D. Guzman-Flores & C.M. Pineda (2022). New queen? Evidence of a long-living Jaguar Panthera onca
(Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) in Tikal National Park, Guatemala. Journal of Threatened Taxa 14(7): 21388–21395. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5813.14.7.21388-21395
Copyright: © Gaitan et al. 2022. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the
author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: The present work
was funded by the World Tapir Conservation
Program that belongs to the Tapir Specialist Group
(TSG) of the IUCN and the Segré Fondation
through the Guatemala Baird’s Tapir Conservation
Program of CECON, and the Dirección General de Investigación
(DIGI) at Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala,
DIGI project (budget line 4.8.63.2.35) implemented in
2018, and Jacksonville Zoo & Gardens.
Competing interests: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author details: Carlos A Gaitán: Biologist, Jaguar
ecologist and CECON Associate Researcher. Research interest in wildlife ecology
and conservation, ecological modelling, neotropical mammal taxonomy and
ecology, systematics, and applied ecology. Manolo J. García: Professor and Researcher from San Carlos
University (USAC). Currently working as Zoologist at the Centro de Datos para la Conservación (CDC)
from CECON. Research interests in wildlife monitoring, biodiversity
information, and large mammals conservation status. M. André Sandoval-Lemus: Biologist and
protected area manager. Education subprogram of the Guatemala Baird’s Tapir
Conservation Program. Research interest in wildlife conservation and
management, bioinformatic tools applied to mammal ecology. Vivian R. Gonzáles-Castillo:
USAC Biologist and CECON Associate Researcher. Currently freelancer biological
monitoring consultant. Research interests in ecology and conservation of
wildlife, animal behavior, wildlife monitoring and management, and wild cats
and large mammals conservation. Gerber
D. Guzmán-Flores: Biology student and researcher from USAC, and
freelance researcher. Research interests in wildlife conservation, ecology,
mammal interactions, mammal hunt, and wildlife populations. Cristel M. Pineda: Natural Resources Management Engineer.
Former Tikal National Park’ Biology Unit Coordinator. Engaged in the research
and conservation of the natural heritage.
Author contributions: CAG: conceptualization,
manuscript writing and review; MJG and MASL: manuscript writing and review;
GDGF, VRGC, and CMP: review. All: field work.
Acknowledgements: We wish to thank the following
institutions for their logistical support and assistance: Consejo
Nacional de Áreas Protegidas
(National Council of Protected Areas; CONAP); Dirección
General de Patrimonio Cultural y Natural (General
Direction of Cultural and Natural Heritage) at Ministerio
de Cultura y Deportes
(Ministry of Culture and Sports); and to the staff of the Biology Unit from
Tikal National Park: Esdras García, Blas Ochaeta, Regino Arévalo, Samuel Ortega,
and Estuardo Hernández. To Biology students from
USAC: Usi’j Bá and Valeria
Barrera; and to Raquel Leonardo from Fundación Defensores
de la Naturaleza. To Rony A. García-Anleu from WCS Guatemala for providing first capture
location of Unen B’alam.
The majestic Selva Maya is
the largest tropical forest remnant in Central America and is shared between
joint areas in northern Guatemala, southern Mexico, and north-western Belize
(Hansen et al. 2013). Selva Maya includes different
types of area management and administration in each country. In Guatemala and
Mexico, a great section includes multiple-use areas that are used by local
communities to implement sustainable forestry (Radachowsky
et al. 2012). Another section is restricted to protected areas purely for
conservation (Radachowsky et al. 2012), such as
national parks and protected biotopos as core zones
within the Guatemalan side, national parks and biosphere reserves within
Mexico, and wildlife sanctuaries within Belize. Maya Biosphere Reserve in
Guatemala is a priority area for the conservation of the viable Selva Maya population of the threatened Jaguar Panthera onca and
for habitat connectivity for wildlife between these countries (Sanderson et al.
2002).
Selva Maya is considered a
Type I Jaguar Conservation Unit by the Wildlife Conservation Society, which
indicates that it is of critical importance to Jaguar conservation (Marieb 2006). It is fundamental to implement long-term
monitoring programs for Jaguar populations in such priority areas throughout
their distribution, since this species has been categorized as “Near
Threatened” on the IUCN Red List (Quigley et al. 2017). From the 34 recognized
subpopulations of the Jaguar, only the Amazon Forest subpopulation is considered
as “Least Concern”, while the remaining are considered Endangered or Critically
Endangered (de la Torre et al. 2017). Because of this, long-term studies are
necessary to detect and respond to changes in Jaguar populations to monitor the
effectiveness of protected and priority areas for its conservation, and develop
strategies under alternative scenarios for their conservation, enhancing
management efforts. They are also important to mitigate threats such as
human-Jaguar interactions and to assess and update population status of the
Jaguar in currently recognized subpopulations (Clutton-Brock
et al. 2010; de la Torre et al. 2017; Harmsen et al.
2017).
Monitoring protocols have been applied for several
sites for studying Jaguar populations (Silver 2004; Ceballos et al. 2011; Harmsen et al. 2017). However, most surveys are
short-termed (Foster & Harmsen 2012), and
long-termed studies quite scarce (Gutiérrez-González et al. 2015; Harmsen et al. 2017). Long-term monitoring studies help to
ensure the effectiveness of protected areas and allows conservationists to
assess the viability for Jaguar populations through life-history parameters
such as survival and mortality of individuals, longevity, sex ratio, home
ranges, and residency (McCain & Childs 2008; Watkins et al. 2014;
Gutiérrez-González et al. 2015; Zanin et al. 2015; de
la Torre et al. 2017; Olson et al. 2019a,b).
Furthermore, in wide-ranging, low-density, and
long-lived species like the Jaguar, high variations in population density and
abundance estimates are expected in repeated surveys over several years (Harmsen et al. 2017). This is because transient individuals
are likely to be detected less often than resident individuals in single survey
sites, as they may range foremost outside respective survey sites or may avoid
trails used by resident individuals (Harmsen et al.
2017).
In Maya Biosphere Reserve, no continuous long-term
monitoring studies targeting the Jaguar have been carried out within specific
management areas, but sporadic and short-term studies implemented independently
by different administrators and actors in the reserve (Kawanishi 1995; Moreira et al. 2008, 2009, 2010; García-Anleu et al. 2015; González-Castillo et al. 2018; García et
al. 2019). In addition, most of these studies’ results remain unpublished or
grey literature. Because Maya Biosphere Reserve is an important international
conservation area for the Jaguar, we report evidence of a long-living Jaguar
individual in Tikal National Park, based on independent surveys. This communication
represents an input for the management and assessment of the reserve and help
to better understand the ecology of long-living Jaguars within the management
type of areas where occur.
Maya Biosphere Reserve, in northern Guatemala,
represents the largest continuous forest patch and protected area complex in
Central America, stretching over more than 2,110km2 in area (Radachowsky et al. 2012). Its administrative division
comprises the buffer zone, the multiple use zone, and many core zones such as
national parks and protected biotopos (CONAP 2015).
Tikal National Park comprises 575.83km2 and is one of the first core
zones declared even before the declaration of the Maya Biosphere Reserve by the
Guatemalan government in 1990 (CONAP 2015). Tikal National Park borders the
Buffer Zone to the south, El Zotz Protected Biotopo
to the west, Yaxhá National Park to the east and the
Multiple Use Zone in the north (Figure 1). According to Guatemalan legislation,
category 1 protected areas such as core zones are intended exclusively for
scientific research and for low-impact tourism, and most resulting in areas
with minimal human impact (CONAP 2015).
However, because of the international fame of Tikal National
Park as an iconic archaeological site and as a cultural World Heritage Monument
with a high incidence of tourism activities (Cleere
1995), important ecological changes have been detected as low detectability of
highly mobile species such as Baird’s Tapir Tapirella
bairdii, White-lipped Peccary Tayassu
pecari, Collared Peccary Pecari
tajacu and Jaguar (García et al. 2019; McNab et
al. 2019).
Tikal National Park and Maya Biosphere Reserve
comprise low-land at elevations of 307–630 m with karstic and permeable soils,
whereas the lower areas of the forest have the highest percentage of clayey
soil and less permeability. These conditions favour the formation of water
ponds that store rainwater during rainy season and become main bodies of water
during dry season, playing an ecological importance for interaction of
individual Jaguars (García et al. 2018; Gaitán et al. 2021).
The climate is tropical with temperatures ranging from
20°C to 30°C with an annual average of 25°C and an annual precipitation of
1,160 to 1,700 mm with seasonal variations (CECON 1996). During rainy seasons
in winter from June to December, the water bodies and the lower parts are
flooded due to a monthly precipitation of 150mm. During the dry season from
February to May, the area receives little to no rain, especially during the
climatic event “El Niño”, and the water resource is limited for wildlife, as
well as for administrators and visitors to the area.
During
the dry season and early rainy season from April to July 2018, the Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas of the
University of San Carlos of Guatemala (CECON/USAC) research team and the
Biology Unit of Tikal National Park implemented a targeted sampling study for
Baird’s Tapir in different core zones of Maya Biosphere Reserve following the
Guatemala Baird’s Tapir Conservation Program of the CECON and Fundación Defensores de la Naturaleza (CECON & Defensores de la Naturaleza
2016). We installed sampling stations using Bushnell Trophycam
8M camera traps providing a photo resolution of 8 Megapixels, which were set to
taking three photos per capture event with a 15 second interval between
photographs (García et al. 2019). One sampling station consisted of one single
camera trap per 9km2 large cell, deployed at approximately 40cm
above ground and affixed to trees (García et al. 2019).
We compared rosette patterns of recorded Jaguar
individuals with photographs of individuals from previous studies in Tikal
National Park and other areas within Maya Biosphere Reserve (Table 1; Karanth & Nichols 1998; Wallace et al. 2003; Silver et
al. 2004; Moreira et al. 2008, 2009, 2010; Ruano et
al. 2010; García-Anleu et al. 2015).
Our survey lasted from 4 April to 26 July 2018 with
a total survey effort of 540 camera trap days in six locations. We obtained 10
photographs of right flanks of two Jaguar individuals entering a pond from one
single camera trap station (16.7%) placed near one of the few river flows in
Tikal National Park (Figure 2 and Image 1).
One of the two Jaguar individuals photographed
during our survey was previously recorded during a 2-week survey from September
and October 2009 by Ruano et al. (2010) as a sub-adult individual around 1–2
years old (Image 1). We therefore consider this individual as a potential
long-term resident Jaguar in Tikal National Park since it would be 10–11 years
old in 2018 and we called it “Unen B’alam”. Rosette patterns on the right upper and lower
flanks can be confirmed to belong to the same individual by comparing the most
conspicuous horizontal small linear rosette surrounded by four major rosettes
in a cross-like arrangement (Image 1). The sampling station in which Unen B’alam was recorded in 2018
is located 11.25km from the sampling station in which it was first recorded in
2009 (Ruano et al. 2010; Figure 2, Image 1).
This photographic record of the
long-lived Jaguar Unen B’alam
represents the longest-lived Jaguar record in the wild to date within Maya
Biosphere Reserve and Guatemala. Jaguars are considered to be sub-adult at the
minimum age of 15 months to two years (Seymour 1989; Sunquist
& Sunquist 2002; Nowak 2005). We estimate that Unen B’alam was in this age group
of 1–2 years old when first recorded, so in 2018, it was at least 10–11 years
old.
García-Anleu
et al. (2015) recorded an adult female named “Rosario, the Queen of Tikal” in
Tikal National Park that was recorded again five years later from its first
record. Olson et al. (2019a) collated records of long-lived wild Jaguars and
reported 15 individuals that lived for more than 11 years. Due to interaction
of Jaguars among conspecifics occurring only during reproductive and cub
raising periods (Jorge-Neto et al. 2018), we suggest
that both individuals recorded in Tikal National Park in 2018 are either a
reproductive couple or a mother female with a cub. As our photographs indicate
that Unen B’alam is
accompanied (followed) by a supposedly male Jaguar, it is presumably a mature
female, and due to its behaviour was similar to Rosario’s reported by García-Anleu et al. (Rosario being followed by an adult male;
2015).
In view of other records of long-lived wild Jaguars,
the estimated life span for this species is of 11.3 ± 1.0 years for females,
with the oldest known female reaching 13 years (Olson et al. 2019a). Unen B’alam would represent a
relatively old female Jaguar and represents a record between the longest-lived
wild Jaguars throughout all the species range (Olson et al. 2019a; b). When
compared this record with similar-aged and older long-lived wild Jaguars
reported in the literature for Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Costa Rica, United
States and Venezuela (Scognamillo et al. 2003; McCain
& Childs 2008; Rabinowitz 2014; Harmsen et al.
2017; Glennie et al. 2019; Olson et al. 2019a,b), Unen
B’alam’s age would suit to this kind of analysis.
Long-term studies on Jaguars have demonstrated that
populations consist of resident and transient Jaguar individuals in Belize
within the Selva Maya (Harmsen
et al. 2017). This could be the case too for the Jaguar population of Tikal
National Park, since Rosario, the Queen of Tikal (García-Anleu
et al. 2015) and Unen B’alam
are the only two individuals (11.8 % of at least 17 individuals recorded; Table
1) that have been spoted as potential residents in
the medium and in the long-term within Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala. In
addition, since resident Jaguars must be recorded for at least three
consecutive years in a row (Harmsen et al. 2017), we
are highlighting Unen B’alam
as potential resident by lacking complementary data. None of the other
individuals recorded in 1994, 2005, 2009 and 2018 in Tikal National Park have
been recorded repeatedly (Table 1; Kawanishi 1995;
García et al. 2006; Moreira et al. 2008, 2009, 2010; Ruano
et al. 2010; García-Anleu et al. 2015; García et al.
2019).
Female Jaguars tend to exhibit higher fidelity to
their home range than males (Rabinowitz & Nottingham 1986; Cavalcanti
2008). In Tikal National Park, long-term survey efforts are required to detect
and identify resident Jaguars. The failure to detect resident male Jaguars
during such surveys may indicate a high mobility or in the worst scenario high
mortality of male Jaguars in Tikal National Park and in Maya Biosphere Reserve
(Harmsen et al. 2017).
This record of a long-living adult Jaguar may indicate
that both the habitat quality and prey availability for the Jaguar population
in Tikal National Park has remained stable according to García-Anleu et al. (2015). However, this national park of Maya
Biosphere Reserve is prone to anthropogenic disturbances due to its location
near the Buffer Zone (García et al. 2020; Figure 1). We therefore agree with
previous authors that the conservation status of the habitat needs to be
evaluated (Morato et al. 2016; González-Gallina et al. 2017; García et al. 2019) as despite Tikal
National Park remains with high forest cover but with possible low ecological
integrity (García et al. 2019; 2020).
Due to the apparent increase in the number of male
individuals over surveys (Table 1), it would be suggested that Tikal National Park
is an area with a high male Jaguar home range overlap degree as García-Anleu et al. (2015) have suggested. We strongly recommend
implementing a long-term survey in Tikal National Park targeting both Jaguar
and prey populations. This information will provide the baseline data required
for estimating and monitoring population changes in the different types of area
management of Maya Biosphere Reserve such as core zones.
Table
1. Details of individual Jaguars recorded during camera trapping
surveys in Tikal National Park and other areas within Maya Biosphere Reserve,
Guatemala. NP: National Park; LC: Logging concession; F: Female, M: Male, U:
Unknown sex, * Unen B’alam.
|
Area surveyed |
Sampling stations |
Survey effort (camera trap days) |
Individuals recorded |
Reference |
|||
|
Total |
F |
M |
U |
|
|||
|
Tikal NP |
18 |
574 |
1 |
|
|
1 |
Kawanishi (1995) |
|
Tikal NP |
19 |
510 |
7 |
1 |
3 |
3 |
García et al. (2006) |
|
Tikal NP |
25 |
384 |
7 |
1 |
5 |
1* |
Ruano et al. (2010);
García-Anleu et al. (2015) |
|
Tikal NP |
9 |
630 |
1 |
|
1 |
|
García et al. (2019) |
|
Tikal NP |
6 |
540 |
2 |
|
|
1, 1* |
This study |
|
Carmelita LC |
20 |
900 |
10 |
3 |
7 |
|
Moreira et al. (2008) |
|
Laguna del Tigre NP |
24 |
1,127 |
9 |
4 |
5 |
|
Moreira et al. (2009) |
|
Melchor de Mencos LC |
23 |
1,035 |
9 |
4 |
4 |
1 |
Moreira et al. (2010) |
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