Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 June 2020 | 12(9): 16048–16063
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN
0974-7893 (Print)
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5524.12.9.16048-16063
#5524 | Received 05 November 2019
| Final received 14 June 2020 | Finally accepted 16 June 2020
Woody species diversity from proposed ecologically sensitive area of northern Western Ghats: implications for
biodiversity management
M. Tadwalkar 1, A. Joglekar 2, M. Mhaskar
3 & A. Patwardhan 4
1,2,4 Annasaheb Kulkarni Department of Biodiversity, M.E.S. Abasaheb
Garware College, Karve
Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411004, India.
1,2,3,4 Research and Action
in Natural Wealth Administration (RANWA), 16 Swastishree
Society, Ganeshnagar, Kothrud, Pune, Maharashtra
411052, India.
1 himedhavi@gmail.com, 2 amrutamjoglekar@gmail.com,
3 monali.mhaskar@gmail.com, 4 ankurpatwardhan@gmail.com (corresponding
author)
Editor: Aparna Watve, Biome Conservation Foundation, Pune, India. Date of publication: 26 June 2020
(online & print)
Citation: Tadwalkar, M., A. Joglekar, M. Mhaskar & A. Patwardhan (2020). Woody
species diversity from proposed ecologically sensitive area of northern
Western Ghats: implications for biodiversity management. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 12(9): 16048-16063. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.5524.12.9.16048-16063
Copyright: © Tadwalkar et al. 2020. Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction,
and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to
the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Study pertaining to informal
protected areas has been supported by ‘Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC, GoI)’, under AICRP SGESA Programme. Rest of the study is self supported.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author
details: Medhavi Tadwalkar is Assistant Professor at Annasaheb
Kulkarni Department of Biodiversity, MES Abasaheb Garware College and research associate at RANWA. Her
research interests include forest ecology, plant phenology pattern and
biodiversity studies. Amruta Joglekar is a research scholar at Annasaheb Kulkarni Department of Biodiversity, MES Abasaheb Garware College and
research associate at RANWA. Her research interests include forest ecology,
seed biology and socio-ecological studies. Monali Mhaskar is a research associate
at RANWA. Her research interests include forest ecology and understanding human
wildlife interaction. Ankur Patwardhan is Head and Associate
Professor at Annasaheb Kulkarni Department of
Biodiversity, MES Abasaheb Garware
College and Honorary secretary at RANWA. His research interests include plant
resources study, bioprospecting and conservation of threatened plant taxa from
northern Western Ghats, and documenting traditional knowledge and community
conservation practices.
Author
contribution: MT—concept design,
data collection, data analysis; AJ—concept design, data collection, data
analysis; MM—data collection; AP—concept design finalization, data collection,
data analysis.
Acknowledgements:
We thank the following: Ministry of Environment,
Forest & Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi, for financial
support; Mr. Subhash Puranik and other forest
officials of Amboli forest division for their
cooperation and guidance throughout the study; Dr.
Aparna Watve for her regular research inputs; Mr.
Amit Bansude, Mr. Ganesh Kale, Mr. Vishal Magadum, and all colleagues for help during data
collection; local experts, Amboli Biodiversity
Management Committee and Malabar Nature Conservation Club for their support and
help.
Abstract: The Western Ghats of India
support an array of tropical forests ranging from wet evergreen to scrub
formations. Several endemic and
threatened plant species are located in areas other than protected areas
(PAs). There is an urgent need to
understand species diversity in areas other than PAs, for effective management
of tropical forests. In this context,
reserve forests and informal PAs of Amboli from
northern Western Ghats have been investigated. Woody species composition,
diversity, and stand structure were assessed by laying quadrats and transects
(n=46, area=2.575ha) in closed and open canopy forest patches covering habitat
heterogeneity and environmental gradient of the area. A total of 2,224
individuals (of 87 species, 68 genera, and 35 families) was enumerated. Memecylon
umbellatum, Syzygium
cumini, and Diospyros nigrescens
were found to be the most dominant species as per importance value index. Melastomataceae was
the most dominant family as per family importance value, whereas Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae were
the most speciose. Fourteen IUCN Red
List assessed species and 18 species endemic to the Western Ghats were
encountered. Endemic species accounted
for nearly 20% of the total number of individuals sampled. Demographic profile exhibited reverse ‘J’
pattern. Average basal area was 27.02m2
per hectare. Woody species diversity of Amboli
forests was found comparable with other PAs from northern Western Ghats. Amboli and the
adjoining area have been proposed as ecologically sensitive and in the wake of
anthropogenic and developmental pressures they experience, it calls for urgent
conservation attention.
Keywords: Endemicity, protected area
comparison, species composition, stand structure
Abbreviations: BMC—Biodiversity Management Committee | DPL—Dry
period length | E—Evergreen | ESA—Ecologically sensitive area | FIV—Family
importance value | GBH—Girth at breast height | GPS—Global positioning system |
IUCN—International Union for Conservation of Nature | IVI—Importance value
index | MSL—Mean sea level | NP—National park | NWG—Northern Western Ghats |
PA—Protected area | RF—Reserve forest | SWG—Southern Western Ghats |
VU—Vulnerable | WG—Western Ghats | WS—Wildlife sanctuary.
Introduction
Woody
species form an important component of the forest landscape both because of
their diversity and biomass. They play a vital role in shaping
overall structural dynamics of the forest stands and offer various kinds of
‘ecosystem services’. Of the 36 global
hotspots of biodiversity, Western Ghats, extending along the western coast of
India, along with Sri Lanka comprise the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka hotspot
(Conservation International 2019; Myers et al. 2000). Western Ghats of India occupy the fifth
position in the world in terms of economic potential of their biological
resources (Ganeshaiah & Shaanker
2007). It is globally, an area of high
endemism with 1,500 endemic species of which 352 are woody plant species and
also houses over 4,000 medicinal plants species. WGs support an array of tropical forest types
ranging from wet evergreen to scrub formations covering an area of about
1,64,284km2 (Kasturirangan et al.
2013). Although nearly 10 percent of the
Western Ghats hotspot is under formal protection, it has been pointed out that
PAs in this region have historically been established on an ad-hoc basis with
little attention to diversity distribution (Bhagwat et al. 2005). There is indeed a growing recognition that
PAs cannot be conceived and managed as “islands” isolated from other PAs and
from the rest of the landscape context (Laurance et
al. 2012). Hence, there is a need to
recognize high potential of informal protected areas such as sacred groves for
effective conservation management (Bhagwat & Rutte
2006) that can supplement the PA diversity.
The conservation management in the region needs to address the following
questions: (1) do existing PAs adequately represent the biodiversity? (2) do
excluded forest patches sustain more species than PAs? and (3) how many PAs are
required to cover the entire gamut of biodiversity? Considering the high
endemism, it is necessary and urgent to evaluate conservation potential andecosystem services of the buffer areas surrounding the
PAs or other areas not included in formal PA network.
CEPF
(2007) report showed that NWG have presence of more fragmented forests patches
than the southern Western Ghats (SWG) and are under the pressures of selective
logging, excessive grazing, fire, and road construction. Though sporadic records of quantitative inventorization of forest stands from PAs of NWG area
available (Kanade et al. 2008; Joglekar
et al. 2015), lack of focused studies on diversity that exists outside PAs in
fragmented forests is a major challenge in understanding changes in forest
community under anthropogenic impacts.
Understanding the spatial distribution of these forests, their
conservation significance and knowledge of vegetation types thus, becomes
essential for outlining effective management strategies.
The
forests of Amboli area act as a transition zone
between NWG and SWG. CEPF (2007) report
identified Amboli region as an irreplaceable site for
certain globally threatened species that lack formal protection. Four new faunal species were described from Amboli region in a span of less than five years (Satose et al. 2018).
The forests of Amboli experience high
developmental pressures owing to growing tourism enterprises, necessitating
conservation planning, for which exploration of the region’s diversity is
necessary. In this paper, we have
characterized the woody species diversity, composition and stand structure of Amboli forests from relatively less explored area of NWG.
Material and MethodS
Study area
NWGs in
Maharashtra range from 15.5°–20.5°N & 73°–74°E. Popularly known as Sahyadri, the forests in
this region are highly seasonal (annual rainfall range: 50–7000 mm, dry period
length (DPL): 8–9 months, temperature: 10–40 0C). Amboli (MSL=700m)
is located in Sawantwadi Taluka of Sindhudurg
District of Maharashtra (Figure 1) in NWG.
Although the area lies outside the formal PA network, it includes
private forests, reserved forests and community owned forests spread across
659.88ha (Bharmal et al. 2011). Fragmented forests of Amboli
form a mosaic of different vegetation and habitat types. Primary vegetation type is evergreen (closed
canopy: >60% and height 15–20m), with stunted vegetation around lateritic
outcrops (open canopy: 20–40%, height 5–8m) (Image 1). These together harbor
endemic and threatened plant species and unique ephemeral flush vegetation that
characterize lateritic plateaus. The
area is proposed as ecologically sensitive (Maharashtra Government Resolution)
and also forms a part of geographically and ecologically important
Sahyadri-Konkan Ecological corridor (CEPF 2007).
It is the
type locality of species like a Caecilian Gegeneophis
danieli (Giri et al.
2003), Amboli Tiger Toad Xanthophryne
tigerina (Biju et al. 2009), leaping frog Indirana chiravasi
(Padhye et al. 2014) and water snake Rhabdops aquaticus (Giri
et al. 2017). Biologists who studied the
diversity of avifauna and Lepidoptera (Bharmal et al.
2011; Satose et al. 2018) concluded that the area is
rich in biological diversity. Though the
area has been explored in details for faunal diversity, comprehensive taxonomic
floristic studies are rare (Kulkarni 1988; Almeida 1990). There is dearth of
quantitative ecological studies.
Amboli is a famous destination for tourists and
naturalists alike due to picturesque landscapes, waterfalls and faunal
sightings. But owing to the unplanned
and unregulated tourism, the area witnesses encroachment into the forested
landscapes, logging, and poorly planned construction.
Sampling design
Standard methods of woody vegetation analysis were followed (Ganesh et
al. 1996; Sutherland 2006). Species
composition and diversity were assessed by laying quadrats (n=40, size 20 x 20
m) and transects (n=6) in closed and open canopy forest patches covering
habitat heterogeneity. It was ensured that the sampling plots cover significant
environmental gradient of the area.
Transect length varied from 500 x 5 m or 250 x 5 m or 200 X 5m depending
on the patch size. Each quadrat and
transect was marked by GPS. The total
area sampled was 2.575ha and intensity of sampling amounts to 0.39% of
sampling, which is more than a standard requirement of 0.01% for such
enumerations (Shivraj et al. 2000).
Vegetation
composition, stand structure and diversity assessment
All woody
species were enumerated for individual height and girth (≥15cm at 1.3m height
above ground) measurements. Species
level identification was done using regional flora (Almeida 1990; Singh et al.
2001). Endemicity and IUCN Red List
status of the species were assignedby referring to
standard literature (Pascal 1988; BIOTIK 2008; Singh et al. 2015;
https://www.iucnredlist.org/). Data
collected from quadrat and transect sampling were used to understand woody
species composition and diversity. For
stand structure and basal area estimates data from quadrats was used. Importance value index (IVI) and family importance
value (FIV) were calculated as per Ganesh et al. (1996). For the diversity estimates, data from
quadrats and transects was pooled.
Diversity was estimated using Shannon’s index (H’) as per Magurran (2004).
Compositional similarity between sampled plots was assessed by Bray
Curtis similarity index calculated using PAST (version 3). Correlation analysis was performed using the
R software (version 3.5.1).
Results
(A) Woody
species composition and diversity
A total of
2,224 individuals were sampled during the study representing 87 species
spanning across 68 genera and 35 families.
Genus Diospyros was found to be the most diverse genus with four
species followed by Ixora and Ficus
(represented by three species each).
Fifty-six genera (82%) were represented by only one species in the
sampled area. Figure 2 represents 10 most
abundant genera in the sampled area with corresponding abundance.
Out of 87
species that were encountered during the study, Memecylon
umbellatum was found to be the most abundant
species in the area (N=501, 22.53%) followed by Mallotus
phillipensis, Syzygium
cumini, Diospyros candolleana,
Symplocos racemosa,
and Diospyros nigrescens. These six species together contributed to
56.11% of the total abundance. A long
tail of singleton species was seen where, singleton species and doubleton
species contributed to 24.1% (n=21) and 12.6% (n=11), respectively, to the
stand structure. Persea
macrantha, Homalium
ceylanicum, and Mitragyna
praviflora were among a few species represented
by only one individual and Euonymus indicus, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, and Litsea
deccanensis were represented by two
individuals. Table 1 depicts various phyto-sociological attributes from the sampled plotsin the study area.
The abundance in the sampled plots varied greatly from one individual
(OLR2, OMD2) to 384 individuals (CCR3); whereas number of species ranged from 1
(OLR2, OMD2) to 32 (CCR3). Maximum
number of woody endemic species (9) was reported from Malai
Pathar (CMP4), whereas Mahadevgad
road (CMD1) showed highest number of endemic individuals (59). Presence of WG endemic species, Diospyros candolleana was a notable feature in this area. Shannon index varied from 0 to 2.86 within
sampled plots, ‘0’ being recorded for two open forest plots which were
represented by single individual. In
order to get insights into the contribution of singleton and doubleton species
in overall woody species diversity of the area, Shannon index value was plotted
against the proportion of singleton and doubleton species in the sampled plots,
depicted in Figure 3 (r=0.798, p<0.001).
The results showed highly significant relation indicating contribution
of rare speciesin the overall diversity of the study
area.
Table 2
gives various species attributes of the study area. Fourteen IUCN assessed species together
accounted for 15% of the total number of individuals encountered. Diospyros candolleana,
listed in the Vulnerable (VU) category, was found to be one of the dominant
species in the study area. Evergreen (E)
is the dominant habit represented by 78% of species which are mainly distributed
in closed forest patches. Eighty-six
percent of species showed zoochory as a dispersal mode. An attempt has also been made to assign
species status (canopy / middle storey / understorey) as per the vegetation
strata observed in the study area.
Cluster
analysis (Figure 4) revealed that maximum species similarity of the plots was
observed to be ca. 74%. Quadrats laid in
Lingachi rai sacred grove area (a community owned
forest), formed a cluster. This cluster
exhibits low similarity with the other quadrats taken in reserve forests,
private forests and Sadachi rai (a sacred grove
situated in the reserved forests). It is
interesting to note here that these quadrats despite being laid in the closed
forests exhibit different patterns. Open
forest patches showed lowest (2% to 20%) species compositional similarity with
closed forest patches.
(B)
Importance Value Index (IVI) and Family Importance Value (FIV)
Data
collected through quadrat sampling (S=78, N=1213) was used for the estimation
of IVI and FIV. Memecylon
umbellatum was found to be the most dominant
species as per IVI (Table 3). Though
represented by only 6% of individuals, Syzygium
cumini was found to be second most important
species due to its high basal area followed by Diospyros nigrescens,
Aglaia lawii, and Dimocarpus
longan.
Family Melastomataceae represented by the
genus Memecylon in the study area,
showed the highest FIV (56.38) due to its abundance as well as the basal
area. Families Myrtaceae,
Anacardiaceae, Ebenaceae,
and Euphorbiaceae were found to be the other most
important families as per FIV (Figure 5).
Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae
were the most speciose families with six species each followed by Lauraceae and Rubiaceae (5
species each).
(C) Stand
structure
The girth
class distribution showed typical reverse ‘J’ shaped curve (Figure 6). First three GBH classes, i.e., 15–30cm,
30–45cm, and 45–60 cm contributed to 73% of the individuals (no. of species=70)
(Figure 7). Less than 1% individuals
were represented in GBH class > 210cm. They were comprised by species such as Holigarna grahamii, Persea macrantha, Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica,
and Memecylon umbellatum. Total basal area recorded was 43.23m2. GBH classes (45–120 cm) contributed to
highest basal area (40.99%), however, it should be noted that maximum number of
individuals was found among lower GBH classes with subsequent GBH classes
showing steady decrease in number of individuals (Figure 7). Basal area decreased with increasing GBH
which was depicted by very low abundance.
Stand basal area of Memecylon umbellatum and Syzygium
cumini was around 41% of the total basal area.
(D)
Endemic species diversity and abundance
Of the
total number of species recorded, 18 species were Western Ghats endemics and
accounted for nearly 20% of the total number of individuals sampled. Genus Diospyros (represented by two
endemic species – D. candolleana and D. nigrescens) comprised of 51.8% of the endemic
individuals. D. candolleana
(VU) was also found to be one of the dominant species in the study area as
revealed from IVI. Drypetes
venusta, Knema attenuata, and Meiogyne
pannosa were encountered only in the sacred
groves. Sacred groves also showed
presence of H. grahamii (>195cm) and Beilschmiedia dalzellii
(>180cm). Such hefty individuals
of these species were seldom seen elsewhere highlighting the significance of
protection of sacred groves in biodiversity conservation. Endemic species richness also exhibited
highly significant relation with Shannon diversity (r=0.766, p<0.001)
(Figure 8).
(E) Woody
species diversity across various PAs vis-a-vis vegetation at Amboli
Table 4
represents various ecological attributes from study area and compares it with
similar such studies conducted elsewhere inside PAs and reserve forests of NWG.
Discussion
Present
study provides systematic account of woody species composition of Amboli forests. In
comparison with studies from protected areas from NWG, the sampled area showed
high species richness and abundance (Table 4).
Out of 35 families, Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae were found to be diverse families of Amboli forest followed by Lauraceae
and Rubiaceae.
Though highly diverse, Lauraceae and Rubiaceae showed lower FIV values due to its lower density
and lower basal area as similar to studies conducted in Kalakad-Mundanthurai
forests of SWGs by Ganesh et al. (1996).
As per FIV, Melastomataceae was found to be
the most dominant family which is very similar to family dominance in Chandoli NP (Kanade et al. 2008)
and Koyna WS (Joglekar et
al. 2015). Puri
et al. (1983) and Pascal (1988) assigned Memecylon-Syzygium-Actinodaphne
(M-S-A) floristic series to evergreen forests of NWG based on the criteria of
dominance–abundance–fidelity. Current study revealed Memecylon-Syzygium–Diospyros
type which is found to be different from Memcylon-Syzygium-Olea type found in protected areas of NWG (Table
4). M. umbellatum,
the most dominant species in the study area was represented by >20% of
the total number of individuals. Similar
trend was found in studies conducted in Chandoli NP
and Koyna WS where M. umbellatum
was represented by 27% and 34% individuals, respectively. The study area harbored
18 species endemic to the WG that accounted for around 20% of the individuals
sampled. It is interesting to note that
some endemic species represented in the study area are among the most important
species according to IVI. These include D.
nigrescens (IVI 13.43), Holigarna
grahamii (IVI 11.02) and D. candolleana (IVI 10.61). This underlines the importance of the study
area in sustaining the population of endemic woody species. High proportion of endemic species was also
reported by Kanade et al. (2008) from undisturbed
evergreen forest patches of Chandoli NP. Similar findings were reported from Koyna WS which showed presence of 23 endemic species
represented by 656 individuals (15.27%).
The dominance of typical evergreen forest species such as Holigarna grahamii
and Aglaia lawii, both endemic species,
suggest an origin from a community differing in composition from the typical
M-S-A types (Watve et al. 2003). Amboli forests
showed presence of 14 IUCN assessed species (six species being VU or NT) with
15% of total individuals sampled which is comparable to Koyna
WS that recorded 13 IUCN assessed species and 9% of total number of individuals
(Joglekar et al. 2015).
Since the
area under consideration is relatively small, we may expect high similarity
among the species in the sampled plots, however, clustering with Bray-Curtis
similarity plot reveals that there are unique species conferring unique
composition to the plots. Closed forest
patches of Lingachi rai form a separate cluster as
against other closed reserved forest patches and Sadachi
rai. Species like Artocarpus
hirsutus, Blachia
denudata, Beilschmiedia
dalzellii, and Caryota
urens were present in Lingachi
rai with low/no occurrence in other closed forest patches. Average stand basal area of Amboli forests was 27.02m2/ha which was found to
be comparable with other studies conducted in protected areas of NWG
(Table4). Present study also showed
reverse ‘J’ pattern of the stand structure with highest number of species and
individuals in lowest GBH class (15–30 cm) (Kanade et
al. 2008; Joglekar et al. 2015) while higher basal
area was found to be between 45–120 cm.
Typical evergreen endemic forest species like Aglaia lawii, Beischmedia dalzellii, Holigarna
grahamii and ecologically important species like Ficus sp., Dimocarpus
longan were present in higher GBH classes (above
180cm) indicating healthy nature of vegetation.
Conclusion
Studies on
the vegetation analysis and biodiversity pattern are of utmost importance
especially in the forest areas outside the PA network. Such areas in tropics are actively managed
and modified by humans. Unplanned and
uncontrolled tourism especially during monsoon, poorly planned construction and
logging are some of the disturbance drivers affecting floral and faunal
diversity of Amboli (Image1). Floristic surveys form the primary step for
carrying out ecological restoration of a particular area (Mota
et al. 2017) and provide the inputs which feed large scale databases.
In this
context, present study forms an important step in establishing the baseline
data about woody plant diversity of the region.
Closed forest patches with dominance of endemic and rare species
emphasized the importance of conservation of Amboli forests
in patchily distributed forests of NWG.
It also revealed that the woody plant diversity in Amboli
forest is comparable to other PAs from NWG.
The information thus generated can be used effectively by BMC formed
under the provisions of Biological Diversity Act (2002). Conserving this unique
landscape rich in flora and fauna involving BMC and other stakeholders such as
local community and forest department will reveal new facets of participatory
conservation model that can be replicated elsewhere in the adjoining areas.
Table 1. Diversity parameters in the sampled plots.
Area |
Plot code |
No. of species |
No. of families |
Stem density per sampling unit |
Endemic species* |
IUCN assessed species |
Shannon index |
Choukul Road |
CCR1 |
16 |
13 |
68 |
2 (5) |
3 (7) |
1.97 |
OCR1 |
5 |
5 |
8 |
1 (3) |
0 |
1.39 |
|
CCR4# |
17 |
13 |
76 |
4 (23) |
4 (15) |
2.19 |
|
CCR5 |
9 |
9 |
60 |
3 (29) |
0 |
1.54 |
|
CCR2 |
18 |
14 |
79 |
4 (10) |
3 (9) |
2.39 |
|
CCR3## |
32 |
22 |
384 |
6 (35) |
3 (32) |
2.59 |
|
Hiranyakeshi |
CHR1 |
9 |
7 |
28 |
3 (5) |
2 (3) |
1.53 |
OHR2 |
4 |
4 |
5 |
1 (1) |
0 |
1.33 |
|
CHR3 |
19 |
14 |
50 |
2 (7) |
0 |
2.14 |
|
OHR4 |
5 |
5 |
8 |
1 (6) |
0 |
1.49 |
|
Lingachi Rai |
CLR1 |
11 |
9 |
35 |
2 (8) |
4 (12) |
2.04 |
OLR2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
1 (1) |
0 |
|
OLR3 |
11 |
8 |
33 |
7 (16) |
5 (15) |
2.18 |
|
CLR2 |
16 |
11 |
30 |
5 (7) |
5 (13) |
2.54 |
|
CLR3 |
13 |
10 |
42 |
4 (9) |
6 (20) |
2.32 |
|
CLR4 |
13 |
9 |
28 |
5 (11) |
4 (14) |
2.33 |
|
CLR5 |
5 |
4 |
16 |
1 (1) |
2 (7) |
1.13 |
|
CLR6 |
12 |
10 |
28 |
3 (10) |
4 (9) |
2.29 |
|
CLR7 |
13 |
10 |
31 |
5 (11) |
4 (14) |
2.36 |
|
CLR8 |
9 |
7 |
33 |
2 (5) |
4 (16) |
1.87 |
|
OLR1 |
4 |
3 |
5 |
0 |
0 |
1.33 |
|
Mahadevgad Road |
CMD1 |
16 |
11 |
67 |
5 (59) |
2 (11) |
2.41 |
OMD1 |
5 |
5 |
16 |
0 |
0 |
1.23 |
|
CMD2 |
11 |
9 |
35 |
2 (10) |
2 (2) |
1.67 |
|
Malai Pathar |
CMP1# |
19 |
15 |
119 |
4 (29) |
2 (21) |
2.44 |
CMP2 |
12 |
9 |
39 |
3 (6) |
2 (6) |
2.21 |
|
CMP3 |
15 |
13 |
43 |
6 (8) |
2 (2) |
2.33 |
|
CMP4## |
29 |
19 |
209 |
9 (45) |
3 (47) |
2.86 |
|
MPCA |
CCR6### |
27 |
17 |
124 |
7 (14) |
2 (2) |
2.71 |
CMC1 |
12 |
11 |
39 |
3 (5) |
1 (2) |
2.01 |
|
CMC2 |
12 |
10 |
43 |
2 (10) |
2 (11) |
1.98 |
|
CMC3 |
16 |
13 |
47 |
7 (17) |
3 (4) |
2.33 |
|
CMC4 |
6 |
5 |
43 |
3 (13) |
1 (5) |
1.21 |
|
CMC5# |
17 |
15 |
99 |
4 (15) |
2 (10) |
2.3 |
|
Narayangad |
OMD2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 (1) |
0 |
0 |
OMD3 |
4 |
4 |
9 |
2 (5) |
0 |
1.22 |
|
Sadachi Rai |
CSR1 |
12 |
10 |
24 |
4 (17) |
2 (11) |
2.31 |
OSR5 |
8 |
8 |
14 |
3 (6) |
0 |
1.95 |
|
CSR2 |
15 |
12 |
26 |
3 (9) |
3 (10) |
2.56 |
|
CSR3 |
18 |
13 |
52 |
5 (21) |
2 (15) |
2.49 |
|
CSR4 |
12 |
9 |
29 |
6 (27) |
3 (9) |
2.29 |
|
CSR5 |
14 |
10 |
34 |
6 (9) |
2 (13) |
2.30 |
|
OSR1 |
7 |
6 |
17 |
3 (15) |
0 |
1.79 |
|
OSR2 |
6 |
6 |
11 |
1 (7) |
0 |
1.59 |
|
OSR3 |
5 |
5 |
15 |
1 (7) |
0 |
1.23 |
|
OSR4 |
7 |
7 |
21 |
2 (10) |
0 |
1.61 |
*Values in the parentheses depict the number of
individuals encountered
All sampling units are primarily quadrats (20 x 20m,
n=40) except # Transects: 250 x 5m (n=3); ##Transects: 500 x 5m (n=2) &
###Transects: 200 x 5m (n=1)
Table 2. Species encountered in the sampled plots and
their attributes.
|
Species |
Family |
Number of
Individuals |
Dispersal
Mode# |
E/D Habit$ |
Forest
strata* |
Endemicity |
IUCN Red
List category## |
1 |
Aglaia lawii |
Meliaceae |
54 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
LC |
2 |
Aglaia sp. |
Meliaceae |
17 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
3 |
Allophylus cobbe |
Sapindaceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
Liana |
|
|
4 |
Alstonia scholaris |
Apocynaceae |
1 |
An |
E |
C |
|
LC |
5 |
Ardisia solanacea |
Myrsinaceae |
3 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
6 |
Artocarpus hirsutus |
Moraceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
LC |
7 |
Atalantia racemosa |
Rutaceae |
28 |
Z |
E |
M |
|
|
8 |
Beilschmiedia dalzellii |
Lauraceae |
23 |
Z |
E |
C |
WG |
|
9 |
Blachia denudata |
Euphorbiaceae |
10 |
At |
E |
U |
WG |
|
10 |
Bridelia retusa |
Euphorbiaceae |
3 |
Z |
D |
M |
|
|
11 |
Callicarpa tomentosa |
Verbenaceae |
3 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
12 |
Canthium anguistifolium |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
Liana |
|
|
13 |
Canthium dicoccum |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
M |
|
VU |
14 |
Canthium rheedei |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
15 |
Carallia brachiata |
Rhizophoraceae |
3 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
16 |
Careya arborea |
Lecythidaceae |
6 |
Z |
D |
M |
|
|
17 |
Carissa congesta |
Apocynaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
18 |
Carissa inermis |
Apocynaceae |
9 |
Z |
E |
Liana |
|
|
19 |
Caryota urens |
Arecaceae |
10 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
LC |
20 |
Casearia graveolens |
Flacourtiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
21 |
Casearia sp. |
Flacourtiaceae |
5 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
22 |
Catunaregam spinosa |
Rubiaceae |
28 |
Z |
D |
C |
|
|
23 |
Celtis timorensis |
Ulmaceae |
3 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
24 |
Cinnamomum verum |
Lauraceae |
6 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
25 |
Clausena anisata |
Rutaceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
26 |
Clausena indica |
Rutaceae |
9 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
27 |
Combretum extensum |
Combretaceae |
1 |
An |
D |
Liana |
|
|
28 |
Combretum ovalifolium |
Combretaceae |
1 |
An |
D |
Liana |
|
|
29 |
Connarus wightii |
Connaraceae |
1 |
At |
E |
Liana |
|
|
30 |
Dichapetalum gelonioides |
Dichapetalaceae |
10 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
31 |
Dimocarpus longan |
Sapindaceae |
71 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
NT |
32 |
Dimorphocalyx lawianus |
Euphorbiaceae |
18 |
At |
E |
U |
WG |
|
33 |
Diospyros candolleana |
Ebenaceae |
115 |
Z |
E |
C |
WG |
VU |
34 |
Diospyros montana |
Ebenaceae |
16 |
Z |
D |
C |
|
|
35 |
Diospyros nigrescens |
Ebenaceae |
112 |
Z |
E |
M |
WG |
|
36 |
Diospyros sp. |
Ebenaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
M |
|
|
37 |
Drypetes venusta |
Euphorbiaceae |
10 |
Z |
E |
M |
WG |
|
38 |
Dysoxylum binectariferum |
Meliaceae |
11 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
39 |
Euonymus indicus |
Celastraceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
C |
WG |
|
40 |
Ficus exasperata |
Moraceae |
1 |
Z |
D |
U |
|
LC |
41 |
Ficus racemosa |
Moraceae |
7 |
Z |
D |
C |
|
|
42 |
Ficus sp. |
Moraceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
43 |
Flacourtia indica |
Flacourtiaceae |
2 |
Z |
D |
U |
|
|
44 |
Garcinia indica |
Clusiaceae |
4 |
Z |
D |
M |
WG |
VU |
45 |
Garcinia talbotii |
Clusiaceae |
20 |
Z |
E |
M |
WG |
|
46 |
Glochidion ellipticum |
Euphorbiaceae |
17 |
At |
E |
C |
WG |
|
47 |
Glycosmis pentaphylla |
Rutaceae |
5 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
48 |
Heterophragma quadriloculare |
Bignoniaceae |
11 |
An |
D |
C |
|
|
49 |
Holigarna grahamii |
Anacardiaceae |
29 |
Z |
D |
C |
WG |
|
50 |
Homalium ceylanicum |
Flacourtiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
51 |
Hymenodyction obovatum |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
Z |
D |
M |
|
|
52 |
Ixora brachiata |
Rubiaceae |
37 |
Z |
E |
M |
WG |
|
53 |
Ixora nigricans |
Rubiaceae |
4 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
54 |
Ixora sp. |
Rubiaceae |
13 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
55 |
Knema attenuata |
Myristicaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
C |
WG |
LC |
56 |
Lagerstroemia microcarpa |
Lythraceae |
2 |
An |
D |
C |
WG |
|
57 |
Leeaindica |
Leeaceae |
29 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
58 |
Lepisanthes tetraphylla |
Sapindaceae |
18 |
At |
E |
M |
|
|
59 |
Ligustrum perrottetii |
Oleaceae |
18 |
Z |
D |
M |
WG |
|
60 |
Litsea deccanensis |
Lauraceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
61 |
Litsea stocksii |
Lauraceae |
4 |
Z |
E |
M |
WG |
|
62 |
Mallotus philippensis |
Euphorbiaceae |
221 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
63 |
Mangifera indica |
Anacardiaceae |
24 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
DD |
64 |
Meiogyne pannosa |
Annonaceae |
3 |
Z |
E |
U |
WG |
|
65 |
Memecylon umbellatum |
Melastomataceae |
501 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
66 |
Memecylon wightii |
Melastomataceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
67 |
Mimusops elengi |
Sapotaceae |
9 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
LC |
68 |
Mitragyna parviflora |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
At |
D |
C |
|
|
69 |
Moullava spicata |
Caesalpineaceae |
2 |
At |
E |
Liana |
|
|
70 |
Murraya koenigii |
Rutaceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
71 |
Murraya paniculata |
Rutaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
72 |
Myristica dactyloides |
Myristicaceae |
31 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
VU |
73 |
Neolitsea cassia |
Lauraceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
74 |
Nothapodytes nimmoniana |
Icacinaceae |
64 |
Z |
D |
M |
|
|
75 |
Nothopegia castaneifolia |
Anacardiaceae |
84 |
Z |
E |
M |
|
|
76 |
Olea dioica |
Oleaceae |
31 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
77 |
Oxyceros rugulosus |
Rubiaceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
Liana |
|
|
78 |
Persea macrantha |
Lauraceae |
1 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
79 |
Salacia chinensis |
Celastraceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
80 |
Scutia myrtina |
Rhamnaceae |
12 |
Z |
E |
Liana |
|
|
81 |
Symplocos racemosa |
Symplocaceae |
114 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
82 |
Syzygium cumini |
Myrtaceae |
185 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
83 |
Syzygium hemisphericum |
Myrtaceae |
35 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
84 |
Tabernaemontana alternifolia |
Apocynaceae |
14 |
Z |
D |
U |
WG |
NT |
85 |
Terminalia chebula |
Combretaceae |
8 |
Z |
D |
C |
|
|
86 |
Xantolisto mentosa |
Sapotaceae |
46 |
Z |
E |
C |
|
|
87 |
Ziziphus rugosa |
Rhamnaceae |
2 |
Z |
E |
U |
|
|
# Dispersal
mode category: Z—Zoochory | At—Autochory | An—Anemochory |$ E/D
habit: E—Evergreen | D—Deciduous | *Forest Strata: C—Canopy species | M—Middle
Storey Species | U—Under storey |## IUCN category: DD—Data Deficient
| NT—Near Threatened | LC—Least Concern | VU—Vulnerable.
Table 3. Importance Value Index of the species from
the study area.
|
Species |
Frequency |
Relative
frequency |
Density |
Relative
density |
Basal area
(m2) |
Relative
dominance |
IVI |
1 |
Memecylon umbellatum |
32 |
7.862 |
334 |
27.512 |
447.083 |
26.221 |
61.596 |
2 |
Syzygium cumini |
22 |
5.405 |
75 |
6.178 |
264.011 |
15.484 |
27.067 |
3 |
Diospyros nigrescens |
23 |
5.651 |
72 |
5.931 |
31.495 |
1.847 |
13.429 |
4 |
Aglaia lawii |
16 |
3.931 |
54 |
4.448 |
85.247 |
5.000 |
13.379 |
5 |
Dimocarpus longan |
14 |
3.440 |
45 |
3.707 |
81.107 |
4.757 |
11.903 |
6 |
Holigarna grahamii |
12 |
2.948 |
26 |
2.142 |
101.144 |
5.932 |
11.022 |
7 |
Diospyros candolleana |
18 |
4.423 |
48 |
3.954 |
38.110 |
2.235 |
10.612 |
8 |
Mangifera indica |
9 |
2.211 |
24 |
1.977 |
107.012 |
6.276 |
10.464 |
9 |
Nothopegia castaneifolia |
21 |
5.160 |
47 |
3.871 |
13.787 |
0.809 |
9.840 |
10 |
Mallotus philippensis |
10 |
2.457 |
42 |
3.460 |
28.339 |
1.662 |
7.579 |
11 |
Beilschmiedia dalzellii |
9 |
2.211 |
22 |
1.812 |
57.208 |
3.355 |
7.379 |
12 |
Ixora brachiata |
13 |
3.194 |
34 |
2.801 |
14.830 |
0.870 |
6.865 |
13 |
Symplocos racemosa |
9 |
2.211 |
35 |
2.883 |
22.388 |
1.313 |
6.407 |
14 |
Catunaregam spinosa |
11 |
2.703 |
23 |
1.895 |
29.089 |
1.706 |
6.303 |
15 |
Syzygium hemisphericum |
7 |
1.720 |
13 |
1.071 |
42.462 |
2.490 |
5.281 |
16 |
Garcinia talbotii |
9 |
2.211 |
19 |
1.565 |
22.757 |
1.335 |
5.111 |
17 |
Xantolisto mentosa |
9 |
2.211 |
20 |
1.647 |
18.739 |
1.099 |
4.958 |
18 |
Atalantia racemosa |
11 |
2.703 |
17 |
1.400 |
5.826 |
0.342 |
4.445 |
19 |
Nothapodytes nimmoniana |
6 |
1.474 |
28 |
2.306 |
11.032 |
0.647 |
4.428 |
20 |
Caryota urens |
7 |
1.720 |
10 |
0.824 |
20.474 |
1.201 |
3.744 |
21 |
Ligustrum perrottetii |
6 |
1.474 |
18 |
1.483 |
7.783 |
0.456 |
3.413 |
22 |
Terminalia chebula |
7 |
1.720 |
8 |
0.659 |
16.206 |
0.950 |
3.329 |
23 |
Ficus sp. |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
47.130 |
2.764 |
3.092 |
24 |
Glochidion ellipticum |
7 |
1.720 |
10 |
0.824 |
7.979 |
0.468 |
3.012 |
25 |
Heterophragma quadriloculare |
7 |
1.720 |
11 |
0.906 |
6.233 |
0.366 |
2.992 |
26 |
Dysoxylum binectariferum |
6 |
1.474 |
8 |
0.659 |
14.603 |
0.856 |
2.990 |
27 |
Olea dioica |
6 |
1.474 |
9 |
0.741 |
7.341 |
0.431 |
2.646 |
28 |
Drypetes venusta |
4 |
0.983 |
10 |
0.824 |
14.087 |
0.826 |
2.633 |
29 |
Diospyros montana |
4 |
0.983 |
8 |
0.659 |
14.816 |
0.869 |
2.511 |
30 |
Mimusops elengi |
5 |
1.229 |
9 |
0.741 |
7.271 |
0.426 |
2.396 |
31 |
Ficus racemosa |
5 |
1.229 |
5 |
0.412 |
12.846 |
0.753 |
2.394 |
32 |
Myristica dactyloides |
2 |
0.491 |
6 |
0.494 |
22.084 |
1.295 |
2.281 |
33 |
Tabernaemontana alternifolia |
5 |
1.229 |
9 |
0.741 |
3.461 |
0.203 |
2.173 |
34 |
Careya arborea |
5 |
1.229 |
6 |
0.494 |
5.774 |
0.339 |
2.061 |
35 |
Lepisanthes tetraphylla |
5 |
1.229 |
6 |
0.494 |
2.792 |
0.164 |
1.886 |
36 |
Scutia myrtina |
4 |
0.983 |
9 |
0.741 |
2.222 |
0.130 |
1.854 |
37 |
Carissa inermis |
4 |
0.983 |
8 |
0.659 |
1.414 |
0.083 |
1.725 |
38 |
Dimorphocalyx lawianus |
2 |
0.491 |
5 |
0.412 |
8.572 |
0.503 |
1.406 |
39 |
Blachia denudata |
2 |
0.491 |
8 |
0.659 |
2.318 |
0.136 |
1.286 |
40 |
Cinnamomum verum |
2 |
0.491 |
3 |
0.247 |
8.343 |
0.489 |
1.228 |
41 |
Clausena indica |
1 |
0.246 |
9 |
0.741 |
2.175 |
0.128 |
1.115 |
42 |
Carallia brachiata |
3 |
0.737 |
3 |
0.247 |
1.481 |
0.087 |
1.071 |
43 |
Persea macrantha |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
12.560 |
0.737 |
1.065 |
44 |
Dichapetalum gelonioides |
3 |
0.737 |
3 |
0.247 |
0.358 |
0.021 |
1.005 |
45 |
Callicarpa tomentosa |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
5.160 |
0.303 |
0.959 |
46 |
Clausena anisata |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
2.835 |
0.166 |
0.822 |
47 |
Meiogyne pannosa |
2 |
0.491 |
3 |
0.247 |
1.005 |
0.059 |
0.797 |
48 |
Bridelia retusa |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
1.130 |
0.066 |
0.722 |
49 |
Euonymus indicus |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.674 |
0.040 |
0.696 |
50 |
Neolitsea cassia |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
6.243 |
0.366 |
0.694 |
51 |
Leea indica |
1 |
0.246 |
5 |
0.412 |
0.574 |
0.034 |
0.691 |
52 |
Ardisia solanacea |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.184 |
0.011 |
0.667 |
53 |
Glycosmis pentaphylla |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.181 |
0.011 |
0.667 |
54 |
Salacia chinensis |
2 |
0.491 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.167 |
0.010 |
0.666 |
55 |
Artocarpus hirsutus |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
2.033 |
0.119 |
0.530 |
56 |
Lagerstroemia microcarpa |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
3.267 |
0.192 |
0.520 |
57 |
Celtis timorensis |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
2.377 |
0.139 |
0.467 |
58 |
Ziziphus rugosa |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.537 |
0.031 |
0.442 |
59 |
Moullava spicata |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.411 |
0.024 |
0.435 |
60 |
Flacourtia indica |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.362 |
0.021 |
0.432 |
61 |
Allophylus cobbe |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.182 |
0.011 |
0.421 |
62 |
Murraya koenigii |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
1.583 |
0.093 |
0.421 |
63 |
Casearia sp. |
1 |
0.246 |
2 |
0.165 |
0.171 |
0.010 |
0.420 |
64 |
Alstonia scholaris |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
1.016 |
0.060 |
0.388 |
65 |
Garcinia indica |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.723 |
0.042 |
0.371 |
66 |
Murraya paniculata |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.430 |
0.025 |
0.353 |
67 |
Knema attenuata |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.407 |
0.024 |
0.352 |
68 |
Mitragyna parviflora |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.246 |
0.014 |
0.343 |
69 |
Combretum extensum |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.152 |
0.009 |
0.337 |
70 |
Diospyros sp. |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.152 |
0.009 |
0.337 |
71 |
Memecylon wightii |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.152 |
0.009 |
0.337 |
72 |
Canthium anguistifolium |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.138 |
0.008 |
0.336 |
73 |
Connarus wightii |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.126 |
0.007 |
0.335 |
74 |
Carissa congesta |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.091 |
0.005 |
0.333 |
75 |
Casearia graveolens |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.091 |
0.005 |
0.333 |
76 |
Combretum ovalifolium |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.091 |
0.005 |
0.333 |
77 |
Oxyceros rugulosus |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.085 |
0.005 |
0.333 |
78 |
Litsea deccanensis |
1 |
0.246 |
1 |
0.082 |
0.080 |
0.005 |
0.333 |
Table 4. Woody plant species diversity in Amboli vis-à-vis PAs and RF from northern Western Ghats.
Study area |
Present study Amboli forest |
Mulshi forest (Watve
et al. 2003) |
Chandoli NP (Kanade
et al. 2008) |
Koyna WS (Joglekar
et al. 2015) |
Radhanagari WS (Unpublished data) |
Fragmented forest of Mulshi Taluka (Kasodekar
et al. 2019) |
Location |
15.950N & 740E |
18.430N & 73.420E |
17.120N & 73.850E |
17.420N & 73.770E |
16.400N & 73.980E |
18.530N & 73.420E |
Annual Rainfall (mm) |
7000 |
6500 |
6200 |
5000 |
5000 |
6500 |
Altitude (m) |
600–700 |
500–1000 |
589–1044 |
740–1005 |
579–853 |
700–1000 |
Dry period length |
7 months |
8–9 months |
8–9 months |
8–9 months |
8 months |
8–9 months |
Forest type |
Evergreen |
Semi evergreen |
Evergreen, semi evergreen |
Evergreen, semi evergreen, moist
deciduous |
Evergreen, semi evergreen, moist
deciduous |
Semi evergreen forest |
Area sampled (ha) |
2.575
|
0.635 |
5
|
6
|
6.5
|
0.3
|
Species encountered |
87
|
52 |
107 |
108 |
165 (Includes unidentified species) |
49
|
Girth class measured |
≥15cm |
≥10cm |
≥15cm |
≥15cm |
≥15cm |
>10cm |
Total no. of individuals |
2224 |
- |
4200 |
4296 |
4754 |
444 |
Density |
1213 individuals/1.6ha |
633–1720 individuals/ha |
149–657 individuals /0.5ha |
84–544 individuals /0.5ha |
140–648 individuals /0.5ha |
- |
No. of endemic species |
18 |
- |
13 |
21 |
17 |
4 |
IUCN assessed species |
14 |
- |
- |
13 |
- |
- |
Basal area |
27.02m2/ha |
14.5–72.9 m2/ha |
10.22–57.16 m2/ha |
6.76–58.23 m2/ha |
20.33m2/ha |
- |
Floristic series |
Memecylon-Syzygium-Diospyros |
Dimocarpus-Aglaia-Ficus
nervosa |
Memecylon-Syzygium-Olea |
Memecylon-Syzygium-Olea |
Memecylon-Syzigium-Olea |
- |
Shannon index |
0–2.86 |
2.1–3.83 |
2.0–3.2 |
1.5–3.03 |
2.52–3.47 |
2.97–3.26 |
For
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