Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 April 2020 | 12(5): 15631–15645

ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)

doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4754.12.5.15631-15645

#4754 | Received 10 December 2018 | Final received 06 March 2020 | Finally accepted 01 April 2020

Comparative phytosociological assessment of three terrestrial ecosystems of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India

M. Vishnu Chandran ¹, S. Gopakumar ² & Anoopa Mathews ³

^1,2 Department of Natural Resource Management, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, N.H. 47, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala 680656, India.

³ Department of Geology and Environmental Science, Christ College, Irinjalakuda, Thrissur, Kerala 680125, India.

¹ vchandran187@gmail.com (corresponding author), ² gopan.s@kau.in (corresponding author), ³ anuanoopamathews15@gmail.com

Editor: K. Ravikumar, Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bengaluru, India. Date of publication: 26 April 2020 (online & print)

Citation: Chandran, M.V., S. Gopakumar & A. Mathews (2020). Comparative phytosociological assessment of three terrestrial ecosystems of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 12(5): 15631–15645. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4754.12.5.15631-15645

Copyright: © Chandran et al. 2020. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.

Funding: Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Author details: Mr. M. Vishnu Chandran is a postgraduate in tropical forestry from the Department of Natural Resource Management of College of Forestry of Kerala Agricultural University, India and is specializing in the study and management of invasive alien plant species in tropical ecosystems. Dr. S. Gopakumar is a Professor of Forest Management in the Department of Natural Resource Management of College of Forestry of Kerala Agricultural University, India with over 21 years of research and academic experience in tropical forestry. Miss. Anoopa Mathews is an Environmental science postgraduate from Christ College Irinjalakkuda, India. She is an amateur plant taxonomist and an expert in tree and grass systematics.

Author contribution: MVC—conducted the field study, data analyses, drafting the manuscript, provided literatures, photos of specimens, habitats. SG-— conceptualized the research idea and peer reviewed the manuscript. AM—identification of the observed plant species.

Acknowledgements: The first and second author would like to thank the Kerala Agricultural University for the financial and technical support given for this study. The permission granted by the Kerala state Forest and Wildlife department to undertake this investigation which forms a part of the postgraduate study of the first author is also gratefully acknowledged.

Abstract: Phytosociological studies were conducted in three vegetation types in the WS II area of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. In each vegetation type, 85 quadrats (10 x 10 m) were laid to quantify the vegetation. Natural forest showed comparatively higher species richness than plantation and vayal (swamps/low lying grassland). In natural forest 96 plant species were present while it was 70 and 66 respectively in plantation and vayal. Fabaceae was the dominant family in all the three vegetation types. The natural forest was dominated by Chromolaena odorata, followed by Lantana camara, Mimosa pudica, Terminalia elliptica, Glycosmis pentaphylla. In the plantations, Chromolaena odorata, Tectona grandis, Mimosa pudica and Glycosmis pentaphylla showed dominance. The vayal was dominated by Arundinella leptochloa. The second most dominant species in the vayal was Chromolaena odorata. Other dominant species were Kyllinga nemoralis and Sporobolus tenuissimus. Among the three, vayal recorded the highest Simpson Diversity Index. The highest Berger-Parker Dominance Index value in plantation indicates the presence of dominant species. Natural forests recorded highest Margalef Richness Index and the least was in vayal. The highest Pielou’s Wiener Equitability Index in vayal indicated all species are evenly distributed.

Keywords: Invasive alien species, phytosociology, Simpson Diversity Index, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats.

Abbreviations: C—Climber | H—Herb | IVI—Important Value Index | NF—Natural Forest | S—Shrub | T—Tree | WS—Wildlife Sanctuary | WS II—Wildlife Sanctuary II.

INTRODUCTION

Forests are the principal bio-resources and repositories of natural wealth that support human well-being and ecological sustainability (Sarkar 2016). Phytosociological studies are necessary for protecting the biodiversity and natural plant communities (Rao et al. 2015). These are very essential components for understanding the changes accomplished in the past and future (Hamzaoglu 2006). The environmental safety of a country depends on the health of its forest area (Lloyd & Ghelard 1964) as it is the forest ecosystems which allocate disparate share to the world’s biodiversity (Battles et al. 2001). For the conservation of biodiversity, it is crucial to attain forest sustainability (Chaubey et al. 1988). It is proven that long-term sustainability of forest ecosystems is greatly related to plant diversity and their phytosociological attributes. Most of the forests in the world today are under extensive anthropogenic disturbances and require careful management intervention to maintain overall biodiversity and sustainability (Kumar et al. 2006). As plants provide both food and habitat for other organisms (Das et al. 2015), the total forest diversity is a dependent factor of plant diversity. The overall strength of the forest rests on its plant composition, and hence the information on its composition, diversity and ecological aspects is of primary importance in conservation planning and implementation.

Tree species control the growth of other vascular plants as they regulate sunlight availability of the forest floor. Analysis and estimation of tree diversity, through which a combination of physical habitat, vegetation, physiognomy, species composition and community relationship are unlocked, are useful datasets in forest management interventions (Battles et al. 2004). The inherent variation within communities and ecosystems must be documented and used as base-line data to effectively predict the outcome of disturbances, such as regeneration and harvest methods on floristic diversity and richness (Sarkar 2015).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

The study was carried out in Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (WWS), Kerala State located in southern India, between October 2016 and February 2017. WWS is spread over to 344km² and comprises two discontinuous land areas of 77.67km² (WS-I) and 266.77 km² (WS-II) (Figure 1). The larger of these two, WS-II lies within the geographical extremes of 11⁰35’–11 ⁰49’N and 76⁰13’–76⁰27’E. The other area WS-I lies within 11⁰50’–11⁰59’N and 76⁰02’–76⁰7’E. The phytosociological study was done in WS-II which has been divided into three forest ranges, namely, Muthanga, Kurichiat, and Sulthan Bathery. The dominant natural vegetation here is characterized by moist and dry deciduous forest (Image 1), teak and eucalyptus plantations (Image 2), and bamboo brakes (Management Plan 2012–2022). Swamps, which are low lying grasslands are spread over 715.79ha. The land area locally known as vayals (Image 3), represent an edaphic climax with its deep clayey soils and are waterlogged during the monsoon, but sustain grasses throughout the year.

The quadrat method was employed for phytosociological analysis of all vegetation. Three ecosystems, viz., natural forest (NF), plantation, and swamps/vayal (low lying grasslands) were compared. In each vegetation type, 85 quadrats (10 × 10 m) were randomly laid to quantify the tree vegetation. Tree species found within each quadrat were photographed. Those plants which could not be immediately identified were recorded by their vernacular names (information from range officer, beat officer, forest guards, and local people). These species were later identified and their scientific names recorded by consulting dendrologists, books, articles, and internet. The other vegetation inside the 10 × 10 m quadrat was further surveyed using 2 × 2 m nested quadrats. In the nested quadrats, for all the species identity, origin (native or alien), growth form (herb, shrub, and climber), and abundance of other vascular plant species were recorded. In order to analyse the diversity of tree vegetation, frequency, relative frequency, density, and relative density were calculated using the following formulae.

Number of individuals

Density (D) = –––––––––––––––––––

Hectare

Number of individuals of the species

Relative Density (RD) = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––× 100

Number of individuals of all species

Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrats

Abundance (A) = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Number of quadrats of occurrence of the species

Number of quadrats of occurrence of the species

Frequency (F) = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––× 100

Total number of quadrats studied

Frequency of individual species

Relative frequency (RF) = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––× 100

Sum of frequency of all species

Importance value index (IVI) was calculated by adding relative frequency, relative density and relative basal area.

Species richness was calculated according to Margalef (1958). Diversity was calculated using Simpson’s diversity index (Simpson 1949). The evenness was calculated in terms of Pielou’s equitability index (Pielou 1969). Dominance was calculated using Berger-Parker dominance index (Berger & Parker 1970).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Overall 129 plant species representing 111 genera were recorded from the three ecosystems (Table 2). Of these, 55 were trees, 24 were shrubs, 35 herbs, and 12 climbers (Table 1). Natural forest showed comparatively higher species richness than plantation and vayal. In natural forest there were 96 plant species. Plantation and vayal had 70 and 66 plant species, respectively. The species recorded in natural forest represented 84 genera in 46 families (Table 1). Fabaceae was the dominant family across the three ecosystems (Figure 2). In the natural forest alone, Fabaceae was represented by 12 species. The other dominant families were Poacae, Asteraceae, Caesalpinaceae, Combretaceae, Verbenaceae and Euphorbiaceae.

Among the tree species Anogeissus latifolia, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Lannea coromandelica, Naringi crenulata, Olea dioica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Shorea roxburghii, Syzygium cumini, Tabernamontana alternifolia, Tectona grandis, Terminalia bellirica, and T. elliptica were seen in all the three vegetation types. Aporosa cardiosperma, Carallia brachiata, Dalbergia lanceolaria, Diospyros melanoxylon, Elaeocarpus variabilis, Gmelina arborea, Hydnocarpus pentandra, Miliusa tomentosa, Pongamia pinnata, Streblus asper, and Terminalia paniculata were observed only in NF. In vayals, the trees, namely, Careya arborea and Trewia nudiflora were seen. In plantations, only Ailanthus triphysa, Elaeocarpus tuberculatus, Mallotus tetracoccus, and Ziziphus mauritiana were present.

Biophytum reinwardtii var. reinwardtii, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Curculigo orchioides, Curcuma neilgherrensis, Elephantopus scaber, Eleutheranthera ruderalis, Lepidagathis incurva, Mimosa pudica, Mitracarpus hirtus, and Senna tora were the herbs seen in all the three vegetation types. Centella asiatica, Chamaecrista absus, and Lindernia crustacea were the herbs observed only in NF. In plantations, the herbs seen were Acalypha paniculata, Desmodium gangeticum, Gomphrena celosioides. Arundinella leptochloa, Axonopus compressus, Cyperus pilosus, Desmodium trifolium, Digitaria ciliaris, Grangea maderaspatana, Jansenella griffithiana, and Kyllinga nemoralis were observed only in vayal.

Catunaregam spinosa, Dendrocalamus strictus, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Sida acuta, S. alnifolia, and Solanum aculeatissimum are the shrubs that could be recorded in all three vegetation types. Canthium coromandelicum, Carmona retusa, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Desmodium heterocarpon, D. pulchellum, Flacourtia indica, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Helicteres isora, Melastoma malabathricum, Osbeckia aspera, Rauvolfia serpentina, Sida acuta, S. alnifolia, Solanum aculeatissimum, Stachyphrynium jamaicensis, and Triumfetta rhomboidei were the shrubs observed in NF. Canthium coromandelicum, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Flacourtia indica, Osbeckia aspera, and Rauvolfia serpentina were seen only in NF. Carmona retusa, Catunaregam spinosa, Cipadessa baccifera, Dendrocalamus strictus, Desmodium heterocarpon, D. pulchellum, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Helicteres isora, Sida acuta, S. alnifolia, S. rhombifolia, Solanum aculeatissimum, Stachyphrynium jamaicensis, and Triumfetta rhomboidei were the shrubs seen in plantation. Calotropis gigantea, Catunaregam spinosa, Dendrocalamus strictus, Flemingia strobilifera, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Ludwigia peruviana, Melastoma malabathricum, Sida acuta, S. alnifolia, and Solanum aculeatissimum were the shrubs commonly seen in vayal. Among these, Calotropis gigantea and Flemingia strobilifera were only seen in vayal.

Among the 11 climbers, Hemidesmus indicus and Ziziphus oenoplia were seen in all the vegetation types. Caesalpinia mimosoides, Cosmostigma racemosum, Elaeagnus kologa, and Piper nigrum were seen in NF. In vayal, Chonemorpha fragrans was only climber which was seen. No climber could be recorded in the plantation.

The vegetation analysis in NF showed that Chromolaena odorata has maximum abundance (81.6) and frequency (61.1) (Table 3). Next to Chromolaena odorata, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (31.3) has maximum abundance. The abundance of Senna spectabilis and Lantana camara were 17.7 and 9.8, respectively. The density of Lantana camara was 532.9 stems ha^-1. After Lantana camara, Glycosmis pentaphylla (338.8 stems ha-1) and Mitracarpus hirtus (195.2 stems ha-1) were the densely seen plant species in NF. The most densely seen tree species in NF is S. spectabilis (188.2 stems ha^-1). Among the first ten highly dense plant species in NF, five were IAPS. Maximum frequency in NF was shown by Chromolaena odorata (61.1) and Lantana camara (54.1). Terminalia elliptica (50.5) was the tree species having the highest frequency, followed by Lagerstroemia microcarpa (31.7) and Olea dioica (35.8). It is Annona squamosa which has the lowest frequency, abundance and density in NF.

In plantation, Chromolaena odorata (75.29) was recorded in maximum frequency, followed by Glycosmis pentaphylla (44.7), Lantana camara (44.5) and Mimosa pudica (44.9) (Table 4). After Chromolaena odorata (65.6), Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (38.5) recorded the second highest abundance. The highest frequency in plantation was for Tectona grandis (87.05). It was followed by Chromolaena odorata (75.29) and Mimosa pudica (49.4). The least frequency was shown by Barleria mysorensis, Bauhinia racemosa, Lannea coromandelica, Melia azedarach and Mimusops elengi. Chromolaena odorata recorded the highest IVI, followed by Tectona grandis.

The most densely seen plant species in vayals was Arundinella leptochloa (11,662 stems ha^-1) (Table 5). Density of Chromolaena odorata in vayal was (58,10.6 stems ha^-1). The lowest density in vayal was recorded for Bauhinia malabarica, Chonemorpha fragrans, and Lannea coromandelica. The most abundantly seen plant species in vayals was Kyllinga nemoralis (173.6). It was followed by Arundinella leptochloa (165.3) and Axonopus compressus (139.6). In vayals, Ageratum conyzoides (72.56) was more abundantly seen than Chromolaena odorata. The highest frequency in vayals was recorded for Chromolaena odorata (89.4) and Arundinella leptochloa (83.5).

The NF in WS II was dominated by Chromolaena odorata (60.56) (Figure 3). The second most dominant species in NF was Lantana camara (15.7). Other dominating species were Mimosa pudica (10.82), Terminalia elliptica (10.53), and Glycosmis pentaphylla (10.38). In the WS II plantation also, the dominance of Chromolaena odorata (143.06) was evident. The second most dominant species here was Tectona grandis (103.35). Other dominating species were Mimosa pudica (57.01), and Glycosmis pentaphylla (55.42). In vayal, Arundinella leptochloa (143.06) had the highest dominance. This was followed by Chromolaena odorata (35.54), K. nemoralis (18.17) and Sporobolus tenuissimus (13.0) in that order.

Among the three ecosystems (Table 6), vayals recorded the highest Simpson’s diversity index, with plantations recording the least index value. In the vayal ecosystem, the predominance of many grass species has contributed to the higher index value. Moreover, vayals also recorded the highest Pielou’s Wiener equitability index, which means that, in vayals, the plant species present are also more evenly distributed. The highest Berger-Parker dominance index for the plantations indicates the domination by selected species in this ecosystem which is also a reason for its reduced diversity index. The highest Margalef richness index was in natural forest followed by plantation and vayal.

CONCLUSION

The paper assessed the phytosociological characters of the vegetation in three different ecosystems (Natural forest, plantation and vayal) of WS II area of Wayanad WS in Kerala State. The plant species diversity and the structural composition of flora found in these ecosystems were distinctly different. As expected, the highest species richness was found in NF and the least was in vayal. All the three ecosystems had their unique set of representative plant species. Chromolaena odorata, which is an invasive alien plant species (IAPS), however, was one of the dominant species in all three ecosystems. Besides the tree species, Terminalia eliptica and Tectona grandis, WS II of Wayanad WS was also observed to be largely invaded by Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, and Mimosa pudica, which are also invasive in nature.

Table 1. Vegetation-type-wise distribution of species, genera, and families.

	Herb	Shrub	Tree	Climber	Total no. of plant species	Family	Genus
Natural forest	17	21	46	9	96	46	84
Plantation	15	16	30	6	70	36	59
Vayal	26	10	24	3	66	31	60

Table 2. List of all plant species in the WS II of sanctuary.

	Binomial	Category	Family	NF	Plantation	Vayal
1	Ageratum conyzoides L.*	Herb	Asteraceae	+	-	+
2	Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston	Tree	Simaboubaceae	-	+	-
3	Annona squamosa L.*	Tree	Annonaceae	+	-	+
4	Anogeissus latifolia Wall	Tree	Combretaceae	+	+	+
5	Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr.	Tree	Euphorbiaceae	+	-	-
6	Arundinella leptochloa Hook.f.	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
7	Axonopus compressus P. Beauv.	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
8	Barleria mysorensis Heyne	Shrub	Acanthaceae	+	+	-
9	Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.	Tree	Caesalpiniaceae	-	-	+
10	Bauhinia racemosa Lam.	Tree	Caesalpiniaceae	+	+	-
11	Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch	Herb	Oxalidaceae	+	+	+
12	Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.	Tree	Fabaceae	+	+	+
13	Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam.	Climber	Caesalpiniaceae	+	-	-
14	Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T. Aiton	Shrub	Asclepiadaceae	-	-	+
15	Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lam.	Climber	Combretaceae	+	+	-
16	Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston	Shrub	Rubiaceae	+	-	-
17	Carallia brachiata Lour. Merr.	Tree	Rhizophoraceae	+	-	-
18	Cardiospermum halicacabum L.	Climber	Sapindaceae	+	+	-
19	Careya arborea Roxb.	Tree	Lecythidaceae	-	-	+
20	Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune*	Shrub	Boraginaceae	+	+	-
21	Caryota urens L.	Tree	Palmae	+	+	-
22	Cassia fistula L.	Tree	Caesalpiniaceae	+	+	+
23	Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.	Shrub	Rubiaceae	+	+	+
24	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Herb	Umbelliferae	+	-	-
25	Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby	Herb	Caesalpiniaceae	+	-	-
26	Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alst.	Climber	Apocynaceae	-	-	+
27	Chromolaena odora (L.) King & Rob.*	Shrub	Asteraceae	+	+	+
28	Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	Tree	Lauraceae	+	+	-
29	Cipadessa baccifera Miq.	Shrub	Meliaceae	+	+	-
30	Clerodendrum infortunatum L.	Shrub	Verbenaceae	+	-	-
31	Cosmostigma racemosum Wight	Climber	Asclepiadaceae	+	-	-
32	Crassocephalum crepidioides S.Moore*	Herb	Asteraceae	+	+	+
33	Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.	Herb	Hypoxidaceae	+	+	+
34	Curcuma neilgherrensis Wight	Herb	Zingiberaceae	+	+	+
35	Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thoms.	Climber	Menispermaceae	+	+	-
36	Cyperus pilosus Vahl	Herb	Cyperaceae	-	-	+
37	Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f.	Tree	Fabaceae	+	-	-
38	Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.	Tree	Fabaceae	-	+	+
39	Dendrocalamus strictus Nees	Shrub	Graminae	+	+	+
40	Desmodium gangeticum Blanco	Herb	Fabaceae	-	+	-
41	Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC.	Shrub	Fabaceae	+	+	-
42	Desmodium laxiflorum DC.	Herb	Fabaceae	+	+	-
43	Desmodium pulchellum (L.) Benth.	Shrub	Fabaceae	+	+	-
44	Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.	Herb	Fabaceae	-	-	+
45	Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler	Herb	Graminae	-	-	+
46	Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.	Tree	Ebenaceae	+	-	-
47	Elaeagnus kologa Schltdl.	Climber	Elaeagnaceae	+	-	-
48	Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.	Tree	Elaeocarpaceae	-	+	-
49	Elaeocarpus variabilis Zmarzty	Tree	Elaeocarpaceae	+	-	-
50	Elephantopus scaber L.	Herb	Asteraceae	+	+	+
51	Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.Bip.*	Herb	Asteraceae	+	+	+
52	Eragrostis tenella (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
53	Eucalyptus globulus Labill.*	Tree	Myrtaceae	-	+	+
54	Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr.	Shrub	Flacourtiaceae	+	-	-
55	Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton	Shrub	Fabaceae	-	-	+
56	Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.	Shrub	Rutaceae	+	+	+
57	Gmelina arborea Roxb.	Tree	Verbenaceae	+	-	-
58	Gomphrena celosioides Mart.*	Herb	Amaranthaceae	-	+	-
59	Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.	Herb	Asteraceae	-	-	+
60	Grewia tiliifolia Vahl.	Tree	Tiliaceae	+	+	-
61	Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale.	Tree	Rubiaceae	+	-	+
62	Helicteres isora L.	Shrub	Sterculiaceae	+	+	-
63	Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br.	Climber	Periplocaceae	+	+	+
64	Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken	Tree	Flacourtiaceae	+	-	-
65	Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.*	Herb	Lamiaceae	+	+	-
66	Jansenella griffithiana (Müll.Hal.) Bor	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
67	Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Dandy	Herb	Cyperaceae	-	-	+
68	Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight.	Tree	Lythraceae	+	+	+
69	Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers.	Tree	Lythraceae	+	-	-
70	Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.	Tree	Anacardiaceae	+	+	+
71	Lantana camara L.*	Shrub	Verbenaceae	+	+	+
72	Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Herb	Acanthaceae	+	+	+
73	Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit*	Herb	Mimosaceae	+	-	-
74	Leucas aspera Link	Herb	Lamiaceae	+	-	+
75	Lindernia crustacea (L.) F.Muell.*	Herb	Scrophulariaceae	+	-	-
76	Ludwigia peruviana (L.) H.Hara*	Shrub	Onagraceae	-	-	+
77	Mallotus tetracoccus Kurz	Tree	Euphorbiaceae	-	+	-
78	Mangifera indica Wall.	Tree	Anacardiaceae	+	-	-
79	Melastoma malabathricum L.	Shrub	Melastomataceae	+	-	+
80	Melia azedarach L.*	Tree	Meliaceae	+	+	-
81	Melia dubia Cav.	Tree	Meliaceae	+	+	-
82	Mikania micrantha Kunth*	Climber	Asteraceae	-	+	-
83	Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Finet & Gagnep.	Tree	Annonaceae	+	-	-
84	Mimosa pudica L.*	Herb	Fabaceae	+	+	+
85	Mimusops elengi Wight	Tree	Sapotacea	+	+	-
86	Mitracarpus hirtus DC.*	Herb	Rubiaceae	+	+	+
87	Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson	Tree	Rutaceae	+	+	+
88	Olea dioica Roxb.	Tree	Oleacea	+	+	+
89	Osbeckia aspera Blume	Shrub	Melastomataceae	+	-	-
90	Panicum trypheron Schult.	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
91	Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm.	Tree	Lauraceae	+	+	-
92	Phyllanthus emblica L.	Tree	Euphorbiaceae	+	-	+
93	Piper nigrum L.	Climber	Piperaceae	+	-	-
94	Pogostemon purpurascens Dalzell	Herb	Lamiaceae	-	+	-
95	Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr.	Tree	Fabaceae	+	-	-
96	Premna tomentosa Wild.	Tree	Verbenaceae	+	-	-
97	Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.	Tree	Fabaceae	+	+	+
98	Rauvolfia serpentina Jacq.	Shrub	Apocynaceae	+	-	-
99	Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britton	Herb	Cyperaceae	-	-	+
100	Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase*	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
101	Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken	Tree	Sapindaceae	+	+	-
102	Schrebera swietenioides Roxb.	Tree	Oleacea	+	-	-
103	Semecarpus anacardium Roxb.	Tree	Anacardiaceae	-	+	-
104	Senna spectabilis (DC.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby*	Tree	Fabaceae	+	+	+
105	Senna tora Roxb.*	Herb	Caesalpiniaceae	+	+	+
106	Shorea roxburghii G. Don.	Tree	Dipterocarpaceae	+	+	+
107	Sida acuta burm. F.	Shrub	Malvaceae	+	+	+
108	Sida alnifolia L.	Shrub	Malvaceae	+	+	+
109	Sida rhombifolia L.	Shrub	Malvaceae	-	+	-
110	Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq.*	Shrub	Solanaceae	+	+	+
111	Spathodea campanulata Buch.-Ham. ex DC.*	Tree	Bignoniaceae	+	-	-
112	Sporobolus tenuissimus Kuntze	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
113	Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl*	Shrub	Verbenaceae	+	+	-
114	Streblus asper Lour.	Tree	Moraceae	+	-	-
115	Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels	Tree	Myrtaceae	+	+	+
116	Tabernamontana alternifolia Roxb.	Tree	Apocynaceae	+	+	+
117	Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirveng. & Sastre	Tree	Rubiaceae	+	-	+
118	Tectona grandis L.f.	Tree	Verbenaceae	+	+	+
119	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.	Tree	Combretaceae	+	+	+
120	Terminalia cuneata Roth	Tree	Combretaceae	+	-	+
121	Terminalia elliptica Willd.	Tree	Combretaceae	+	+	+
122	Terminalia paniculata Roth	Tree	Combretaceae	+	-	-
123	Themeda triandra Forssk.	Herb	Poaceae	-	-	+
124	Trewia nudiflora Wight	Tree	Euphorbiaceae	-	-	+
125	Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.	Shrub	Tiliaceae	+	+	-
126	Vitex altissima L.f.	Tree	Verbenaceae	+	-	-
127	Ziziphus glabrata B. Heyne ex Roth	Tree	Rhamnaceae	+	-	-
128	Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.	Tree	Rhamnaceae	-	+	-
129	Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.	Climber	Rhamnaceae	+	+	+

*indicates non-native species

Table 3. Phytosociological analysis of vegetation in natural forest.

	Binomial	F	RF	D	RD	A	RBA	IVI
1	Ageratum conyzoides*	11.76	1.14	61.18	0.60	5.20	1.14	2.88
2	Annona squamosa*	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
3	Anogeissus latifolia	9.41	0.91	12.94	0.13	1.38	0.91	1.95
4	Aporosa cardiosperma	5.88	0.57	8.24	0.08	1.40	0.57	1.22
5	Barleria mysorensis	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
6	Bauhinia racemosa	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
7	Biophytum reinwardtii	2.35	0.23	10.59	0.10	4.50	0.23	0.56
8	Butea monosperma	9.41	0.91	10.59	0.10	1.13	0.91	1.93
9	Caesalpinia mimosoides	1.18	0.11	17.65	0.17	15.0	0.11	0.40
10	Calycopteris floribunda	18.82	1.83	37.65	0.37	2.00	1.83	4.02
11	Canthium coromandelicum	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
12	Carallia brachiata	15.29	1.48	37.65	0.37	2.46	1.48	3.33
13	Cardiospermum halicacabum	8.24	0.80	10.59	0.10	1.29	0.80	1.70
14	Carmona retusa*	15.29	1.48	18.82	0.18	1.23	1.48	3.15
15	Caryota urens	3.53	0.34	7.06	0.07	2.00	0.34	0.75
16	Cassia fistula	28.24	2.74	57.65	0.56	2.04	2.74	6.04
17	Catunaregam spinosa	10.59	1.03	11.76	0.11	1.11	1.03	2.17
18	Centella asiatica	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
19	Chamaecrista absus	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
20	Chromolaena odorata*	61.18	5.94	4996.47	48.69	81.6	5.94	60.5
21	Cinnamomum verum	11.76	1.14	52.94	0.52	4.50	1.14	2.80
22	Cipadessa baccifera	4.71	0.46	8.24	0.08	1.75	0.46	0.99
23	Clerodendrum infortunatum	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
24	Cosmostigma racemosum	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
25	Crassocephalum crepidioides*	8.24	0.80	11.76	0.11	1.43	0.80	1.71
26	Curculigo orchioides	3.53	0.34	44.71	0.44	12.6	0.34	1.12
27	Curcuma neilgherrensis	17.65	1.71	70.59	0.69	4.00	1.71	4.11
28	Cyclea peltata	17.65	1.71	27.06	0.26	1.53	1.71	3.69
29	Dalbergia lanceolaria	10.59	1.03	15.29	0.15	1.44	1.03	2.20
30	Dendrocalamus strictus	18.82	1.83	58.82	0.57	3.13	1.83	4.23
31	Desmodium heterocarpon	2.35	0.23	8.24	0.08	3.50	0.23	0.54
32	Desmodium laxiflorum	7.06	0.68	11.76	0.11	1.67	0.68	1.48
33	Desmodium pulchellum	5.88	0.57	7.06	0.07	1.20	0.57	1.21
34	Diospyros melanoxylon	7.06	0.68	9.41	0.09	1.33	0.68	1.46
35	Elaeagnus kologa	2.35	0.23	4.71	0.05	2.00	0.23	0.50
36	Elaeocarpus variabilis	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
37	Elephantopus scaber	14.12	1.37	142.35	1.39	10.1	1.37	4.13
38	Eleutheranthera ruderalis*	7.06	0.68	31.76	0.31	4.50	0.68	1.68
39	Flacourtia indica	11.76	1.14	14.12	0.14	1.20	1.14	2.42
40	Glycosmis pentaphylla	36.47	3.54	338.82	3.30	9.29	3.54	10.3
41	Gmelina arborea	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.02	1.00	0.23	0.48
42	Grewia tiliifolia	14.12	1.37	20.00	0.19	1.42	1.37	2.93
43	Haldina cordifolia	5.88	0.57	9.41	0.09	1.60	0.57	1.23
44	Helicteres isora	27.06	2.63	50.59	0.49	1.87	2.63	5.74
45	Hemidesmus indicus	1.18	0.11	3.53	0.03	3.00	0.11	0.26
46	Hydnocarpus pentandra	5.88	0.57	5.88	0.06	1.00	0.57	1.20
47	Hyptis suaveolens*	3.53	0.34	24.71	0.24	7.00	0.34	0.93
48	Lagerstroemia microcarpa	31.76	3.08	38.82	0.38	1.22	3.08	6.54
49	Lagerstroemia speciosa	3.53	0.34	3.53	0.03	1.00	0.34	0.72
50	Lannea coromandelica	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.02	1.00	0.23	0.48
51	Lantana camara*	54.12	5.25	532.94	5.19	9.85	5.25	15.7
52	Lepidagathis incurva	15.29	1.48	29.41	0.29	1.92	1.48	3.25
53	Leucaena leucocephala*	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
54	Leucas aspera	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
55	Lindernia crustacea*	12.94	1.26	35.29	0.34	2.73	1.26	2.86
56	Mangifera indica	4.71	0.46	11.76	0.11	2.50	0.46	1.03
57	Melastoma malabathricum	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
58	Melia azedarach*	4.71	0.46	5.88	0.06	1.25	0.46	0.97
59	Melia dubia	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.05	1.00	0.46	0.96
60	Miliusa tomentosa	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.02	2.00	0.11	0.25
61	Mimosa pudica*	48.24	4.68	149.41	1.46	3.10	4.68	10.8
62	Mimusops elengi	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.02	1.00	0.23	0.48
63	Mitracarpus hirtus	9.41	0.91	195.29	1.90	20.7	0.91	3.73
64	Naringi crenulata	20.00	1.94	40.00	0.39	2.00	1.94	4.27
65	Olea dioica	30.59	2.97	80.00	0.78	2.62	2.97	6.72
66	Osbeckia aspera	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
67	Persea macrantha	22.35	2.17	40.00	0.39	1.79	2.17	4.73
68	Phyllanthus emblica	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.02	1.00	0.23	0.48
69	Piper nigrum	7.06	0.68	11.76	0.11	1.67	0.68	1.48
70	Pongamia pinnata	5.88	0.57	8.24	0.08	1.40	0.57	1.22
71	Premna mollissima	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
72	Pterocarpus marsupium	8.24	0.80	8.24	0.08	1.00	0.80	1.68
73	Rauvolfia serpentina	3.53	0.34	5.88	0.06	1.67	0.34	0.74
74	Schleichera oleosa	16.47	1.60	22.35	0.22	1.36	1.60	3.41
75	Schrebera swietenioides	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
76	Senna spectabilis*	10.59	1.03	188.24	1.83	17.7	1.03	3.89
77	Senna tora*	3.53	0.34	10.59	0.10	3.00	0.34	0.79
78	Shorea roxburghii	15.29	1.48	36.47	0.36	2.38	1.48	3.32
79	Sida acuta	3.53	0.34	3.53	0.03	1.00	0.34	0.72
80	Sida alnifolia	11.76	1.14	22.35	0.22	1.90	1.14	2.50
81	Solanum aculeatissimum*	18.82	1.83	29.41	0.29	1.56	1.83	3.94
82	Spathodea campanulata*	11.76	1.14	18.82	0.18	1.60	1.14	2.47
83	Stachytarpheta jamaicensis*	3.53	0.34	110.59	1.08	31.3	0.34	1.76
84	Streblus asper	7.06	0.68	7.06	0.07	1.00	0.68	1.44
85	Syzygium cumini	18.82	1.83	60.00	0.58	3.19	1.83	4.24
86	Tabernamontana alternifolia	16.47	1.60	32.94	0.32	2.00	1.60	3.52
87	Tamilnadia ulginosa	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.01	1.00	0.11	0.24
88	Tectona grandis	20.00	1.94	42.35	0.41	2.12	1.94	4.29
89	Terminalia bellirica	5.88	0.57	5.88	0.06	1.00	0.57	1.20
90	Terminalia cuneata	3.53	0.34	3.53	0.03	1.00	0.34	0.72
91	Terminalia elliptica	50.59	4.91	72.94	0.71	1.44	4.91	10.5
92	Terminalia paniculata	14.12	1.37	14.12	0.14	1.00	1.37	2.88
93	Triumfetta rhomboidea	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.05	1.00	0.46	0.96
94	Vitex altissima	4.71	0.46	5.88	0.06	1.25	0.46	0.97
95	Ziziphus glabrata	20.00	1.94	20.00	0.19	1.00	1.94	4.08
96	Ziziphus oenoplia	5.88	0.57	7.06	0.07	1.20	0.57	1.21
	Total	1029.41	99.89	8228.24	80.18	368.08	99.89	300.00

F—Frequency | RF—Relative Frequency | D—Density, RD—Relative density| A—Abundance | RBA—Relative basal area | IVI—Importance Value Index.

*indicates non-native species

Table 4. Phytosociological analysis of vegetation in plantation.

	Binomial	F	RF	D	RD	A	RBA	IVI
1	Acalypha paniculata	1.18	0.13	2.35	0.03	2.00	1.18	1.33
2	Ailanthus triphysa	5.88	0.64	7.06	0.09	1.20	5.88	6.61
3	Anogeissus latifolia	14.12	1.54	14.1	0.17	1.00	14.12	15.8
4	Barleria mysorensis	1.18	0.13	1.18	0.01	1.00	1.18	1.32
5	Bauhinia racemosa	1.18	0.13	1.18	0.01	1.00	1.18	1.32
6	Biophytum reinwardtii	2.35	0.26	5.88	0.07	2.50	2.35	2.68
7	Butea monosperma	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
8	Calycopteris floribunda	2.35	0.26	4.71	0.06	2.00	2.35	2.67
9	Cardiospermum halicacabum	3.53	0.38	3.53	0.04	1.00	3.53	3.96
10	Carmona retusa*	3.53	0.38	3.53	0.04	1.00	3.53	3.96
11	Caryota urens	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
12	Cassia fistula	42.35	4.62	83.5	1.01	1.97	42.35	47.9
13	Catunaregam spinosa	21.18	2.31	31.7	0.38	1.50	21.18	23.8
14	Chromolaena odorata*	75.29	8.21	4943.53	59.56	65.6	75.29	143.1
15	Cinnamomum verum	4.71	0.51	11.76	0.14	2.50	4.71	5.36
16	Cipadessa baccifera	11.76	1.28	14.12	0.17	1.20	11.76	13.22
17	Crassocephalum crepidioides*	24.71	2.69	35.29	0.43	1.43	24.71	27.82
18	Curculigo orchioides	10.59	1.15	84.71	1.02	8.00	10.59	12.76
19	Curcuma neilgherrensis	15.29	1.67	72.94	0.88	4.77	15.29	17.84
20	Cyclea peltata	10.59	1.15	17.65	0.21	1.67	10.59	11.95
21	Dalbergia latifolia	27.06	2.95	34.12	0.41	1.26	27.06	30.42
22	Dendrocalamus strictus	14.12	1.54	37.65	0.45	2.67	14.12	16.11
23	Desmodium gangeticum	1.18	0.13	2.35	0.03	2.00	1.18	1.33
24	Desmodium heterocarpon	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
25	Desmodium laxiflorum	7.06	0.77	7.06	0.09	1.00	7.06	7.91
26	Desmodium pulchellum	9.41	1.03	14.12	0.17	1.50	9.41	10.61
27	Elaeocarpus tuberculatus	2.35	0.26	16.47	0.20	7.00	2.35	2.81
28	Elephantopus scaber	23.53	2.56	101.18	1.22	4.30	23.53	27.31
29	Eleutheranthera ruderalis*	1.18	0.13	4.71	0.06	4.00	1.18	1.36
30	Eucalyptus globulus*	12.94	1.41	75.29	0.91	5.82	12.94	15.26
31	Glycosmis pentaphylla	44.71	4.87	484.71	5.84	10.8	44.71	55.42
32	Gomphrena celosioides*	3.53	0.38	9.41	0.11	2.67	3.53	4.03
33	Grewia tiliifolia	10.59	1.15	16.47	0.20	1.56	10.59	11.94
34	Helicteres isora	29.41	3.21	67.06	0.81	2.28	29.41	33.42
35	Hemidesmus indicus	8.24	0.90	68.24	0.82	8.29	8.24	9.95
36	Hyptis suaveolens*	1.18	0.13	4.71	0.06	4.00	1.18	1.36
37	Lagerstroemia microcarpa	17.65	1.92	20.00	0.24	1.13	17.65	19.81
38	Lannea coromandelica	1.18	0.13	1.18	0.01	1.00	1.18	1.32
39	Lantana camara*	45.88	5.00	322.35	3.88	7.03	45.88	54.77
40	Lepidagathis incurve	4.71	0.51	28.24	0.34	6.00	4.71	5.56
41	Mallotus tetracoccus	4.71	0.51	9.41	0.11	2.00	4.71	5.33
42	Melia azedarach*	1.18	0.13	1.18	0.01	1.00	1.18	1.32
43	Melia dubia	11.76	1.28	57.65	0.69	4.90	11.76	13.74
44	Mikania micrantha*	2.35	0.26	11.76	0.14	5.00	2.35	2.75
45	Mimosa pudica*	49.41	5.38	183.53	2.21	3.71	49.41	57.01
46	Mimusops elengi	1.18	0.13	1.18	0.01	1.00	1.18	1.32
47	Mitracarpus hirtus	11.76	1.28	147.06	1.77	12.5	11.76	14.82
48	Naringi crenulata	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
49	Olea dioica	16.47	1.79	42.35	0.51	2.57	16.47	18.78
50	Persea macrantha	1.18	0.13	4.71	0.06	4.00	1.18	1.36
51	Pogostemon purpurascens	3.53	0.38	50.59	0.61	14.3	3.53	4.52
52	Pterocarpus marsupium	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
53	Schleichera oleosa	18.82	2.05	92.94	1.12	4.94	18.82	21.99
54	Semecarpus anacardium	18.82	2.05	25.88	0.31	1.38	18.82	21.19
55	Senna spectabilis*	8.24	0.90	63.53	0.77	7.71	8.24	9.90
56	Senna tora*	3.53	0.38	38.82	0.47	11.0	3.53	4.38
57	Shorea roxburghii	12.94	1.41	17.65	0.21	1.36	12.94	14.56
58	Sida acuta	12.94	1.41	14.12	0.17	1.09	12.94	14.52
59	Sida alnifolia	25.88	2.82	54.12	0.65	2.09	25.88	29.35
60	Sida rhombifolia	8.24	0.90	8.24	0.10	1.00	8.24	9.23
61	Solanum aculeatissimum*	11.76	1.28	21.18	0.26	1.80	11.76	13.30
62	Stachytarpheta jamaicensis*	2.35	0.26	90.59	1.09	38.5	2.35	3.70
63	Syzygium cumini	8.24	0.90	20.00	0.24	2.43	8.24	9.37
64	Tabernamontana alternifolia	23.53	2.56	41.18	0.50	1.75	23.53	26.59
65	Tectona grandis	87.06	9.49	564.71	6.80	6.49	87.06	103.3
66	Terminalia bellirica	2.35	0.26	2.35	0.03	1.00	2.35	2.64
67	Terminalia elliptica	4.71	0.51	14.12	0.17	3.00	4.71	5.39
68	Triumfetta rhomboidea	15.29	1.67	23.53	0.28	1.54	15.29	17.24
69	Ziziphus mauritiana	5.88	0.64	5.88	0.07	1.00	5.88	6.59
70	Ziziphus oenoplia	14.12	1.54	25.88	0.31	1.83	14.12	15.97
	Total	917.65	100.00	8300.00	100.00	321.66	100.0	300

F—Frequency | RF—Relative Frequency | D—Density, RD—Relative density| A—Abundance | RBA—Relative basal area | IVI—Importance Value Index.

*indicates non-native species

Table 5. Phytosociological analysis of vegetation in Vayal.

	Binomial	F	RF	D	RD	A	RBA	IVI
1	Ageratum conyzoides*	10.59	1.03	768.24	2.39	72.56	1.03	4.46
2	Annona squamosa*	1.18	0.11	22.35	0.07	19.00	0.11	0.30
3	Anogeissus latifolia	11.76	1.15	11.76	0.04	1.00	1.15	2.34
4	Arundinella leptochloa	83.53	8.16	11662.3	36.27	139.6	8.16	52.59
5	Axonopus compressus	17.65	1.72	2917.65	9.07	165.3	1.72	12.52
6	Bauhinia malabarica	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.00	1.00	0.11	0.23
7	Biophytum reinwardtii	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
8	Butea monosperma	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.01	1.00	0.23	0.47
9	Calotropis gigantea	3.53	0.34	3.53	0.01	1.00	0.34	0.70
10	Careya arborea	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
11	Cassia fistula	12.94	1.26	20.00	0.06	1.55	1.26	2.59
12	Catunaregam spinosa	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
13	Chonemorpha fragrans	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.00	1.00	0.11	0.23
14	Crassocephalum crepidioides*	40.00	3.91	80.00	0.25	2.00	3.91	8.06
15	Curculigo orchioides	7.06	0.69	11.76	0.04	1.67	0.69	1.42
16	Curcuma neilgherrensis	23.53	2.30	49.41	0.15	2.10	2.30	4.75
17	Cyperus pilosus	8.24	0.80	195.29	0.61	23.71	0.80	2.22
18	Dalbergia latifolia	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
19	Dendrocalamus strictus	7.06	0.69	11.76	0.04	1.67	0.69	1.42
20	Desmodium triflorum	15.29	1.49	712.94	2.22	46.62	1.49	5.21
21	Digitaria ciliaris	29.41	2.87	992.94	3.09	33.76	2.87	8.83
22	Elephantopus scaber	8.24	0.80	37.65	0.12	4.57	0.80	1.73
23	Eleutheranthera ruderalis*	4.71	0.46	37.65	0.12	8.00	0.46	1.04
24	Eragrostis tenella	21.18	2.07	1052.94	3.27	49.72	2.07	7.41
25	Eucalyptus globulus*	1.18	0.11	3.53	0.01	3.00	0.11	0.24
26	Chromolaena odorata*	89.41	8.74	5810.59	18.07	64.99	8.74	35.54
27	Flemingia strobilifera	2.35	0.23	7.06	0.02	3.00	0.23	0.48
28	Glycosmis pentaphylla	14.12	1.38	148.24	0.46	10.50	1.38	3.22
29	Grangea maderaspatana	7.06	0.69	11.76	0.04	1.67	0.69	1.42
30	Haldina cordifolia	35.29	3.45	38.82	0.12	1.10	3.45	7.02
31	Hemidesmus indicus	3.53	0.34	8.24	0.03	2.33	0.34	0.72
32	Jansenella griffithiana	18.82	1.84	203.53	0.63	10.81	1.84	4.31
33	Kyllinga nemoralis	24.71	2.41	4289.41	13.34	173.6	2.41	18.17
34	Lagerstroemia microcarpa	8.24	0.80	8.24	0.03	1.00	0.80	1.63
35	Lannea coromandelica	1.18	0.11	1.18	0.00	1.00	0.11	0.23
36	Lantana camara*	43.53	4.25	423.53	1.32	9.73	4.25	9.82
37	Lepidagathis incurve	1.18	0.11	3.53	0.01	3.00	0.11	0.24
38	Leucas asper	8.24	0.80	10.59	0.03	1.29	0.80	1.64
39	Ludwigia peruviana	1.18	0.11	7.06	0.02	6.00	0.11	0.25
40	Melastoma malabathricum	2.35	0.23	12.94	0.04	5.50	0.23	0.50
41	Mimosa pudica*	52.94	5.17	172.94	0.54	3.27	5.17	10.88
42	Mitracarpus hirtus*	18.82	1.84	137.65	0.43	7.31	1.84	4.11
43	Naringi crenulata	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.01	1.00	0.23	0.47
44	Olea dioica	7.06	0.69	8.24	0.03	1.17	0.69	1.40
45	Panicum trypheron	29.41	2.87	736.47	2.29	25.04	2.87	8.04
46	Phyllanthus emblica	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
47	Pterocarpus marsupium	5.88	0.57	9.41	0.03	1.60	0.57	1.18
48	Rhynchospora corymbosa	7.06	0.69	81.18	0.25	11.50	0.69	1.63
49	Sacciolepis indica*	30.59	2.99	250.59	0.78	8.19	2.99	6.76
50	Senna spectabilis*	7.06	0.69	84.71	0.26	12.00	0.69	1.64
51	Senna tora*	21.18	2.07	45.88	0.14	2.17	2.07	4.28
52	Shorea roxburghii	3.53	0.34	8.24	0.03	2.33	0.34	0.72
53	Sida acuta	10.59	1.03	18.82	0.06	1.78	1.03	2.13
54	Sida alnifolia	16.47	1.61	25.88	0.08	1.57	1.61	3.30
55	Solanum aculeatissimum	29.41	2.87	54.12	0.17	1.84	2.87	5.92
56	Sporobolus tenuissimus	56.47	5.52	632.94	1.97	11.21	5.52	13.00
57	Syzygium cumini	18.82	1.84	21.18	0.07	1.13	1.84	3.74
58	Tabernamontana alternifolia	2.35	0.23	2.35	0.01	1.00	0.23	0.47
59	Tamilnadia uliginosa	18.82	1.84	20.00	0.06	1.06	1.84	3.74
60	Tectona grandis	16.47	1.61	41.18	0.13	2.50	1.61	3.35
61	Terminalia bellirica	4.71	0.46	4.71	0.01	1.00	0.46	0.93
62	Terminalia cuneata	7.06	0.69	7.06	0.02	1.00	0.69	1.40
63	Terminalia elliptica	48.24	4.71	74.12	0.23	1.54	4.71	9.66
64	Themeda triandra	8.24	0.80	105.88	0.33	12.86	0.80	1.94
65	Trewia nudiflora	1.18	0.11	2.35	0.01	2.00	0.11	0.24
66	Ziziphus oenoplia	2.35	0.23	3.53	0.01	1.50	0.23	0.47
	Total	1023.53	100.0	32156.4	100.0	997.96	100.0	300.0

F—Frequency | RF—Relative Frequency | D—Density, RD—Relative density| A—Abundance | RBA—Relative basal area | IVI—Importance Value Index.

*indicates non-native species.

Table 6. Diversity attributes of three ecosystems.

Ecosystem	Simpson’s diversity index (1-D)	Berger-Parker dominance index	Margalef richness index	Pielou's equitability index
Natural Forest	0.61	0.62	10.76	1.002
Plantation	0.58	0.64	7.85	0.999
Vayal	0.80	0.36	6.46	1.19

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