Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26
December 2019 | 11(15): 15015–15042
Diversity
and distribution of orchids of Goa,
Western Ghats, India
Jeewan Singh Jalal
Botanical Survey of India, Western Regional Centre, 7,
Koregaon Park Road, Pune, Maharashtra 411001, India.
jeewan.orchid@gmail.com
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4499.11.15.15015-15042
Editor: Pankaj Kumar, Kadoorie
Farm and Botanic Garden (KFBG) Corporation, Tai Po, Hong Kong S.A.R., China. Date of publication: 26 December
2019 (online & print)
Manuscript details: #4499 | Received 20 August 2018 | Final received 30 November 2019 |
Finally accepted 07 December 2019
Citation: Jalal, J.S. (2019). Diversity and distribution of orchids of Goa, Western
Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 11(15): 15015–15042. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3891.11.15.15015-15042
Copyright: © Jalal 2019. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and
distribution of this article in any medium by adequate credit to the author(s)
and the source of publication.
Funding: Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing
interests.
Author details: Dr. Jeewan Singh
Jalal is working
as a Scientist-D in Botanical Surveyof India, Western
Regional Centre, Pune. He is specialized on orchid taxonomy, ecology and
conservation.
Acknowledgements: The author is thankful to the Director Botanical
Survey of India, Kolkata and Head of Office & Scientist-’E’, Botanical
Survey of India, Western Regional Centre for facilities and encouragement. I am
also grateful to the PCCF & DCF, Goa Forest Department for granting
permission for the field survey.
Abstract: The Botanical Survey of India launched a pilot project
during 2015–2017 on exploration of orchids of Goa State covering all the
protected areas. A total of 68 orchid
species belonging to 28 genera were documented of which 42 are epiphytic and 26
are terrestrial. Twenty-eight species
are endemic, of which 23 species are strictly endemic to the Western Ghats, two
are endemic to peninsular India, and three are endemic to the country. Distribution of orchids in Goa is
concentrated mainly in the Western Ghats region, which accounts for 86% of the
total orchid species richness of the state.
The most favourable habitat was found to be semi-evergreen forests
followed by moist-deciduous forests.
Among all the protected areas, the Mhadei
Wildlife Sanctuary was found to be rich in orchid diversity (39 species)
followed by Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary, and Cotigaon Wildlife Sanctuary. The MaxEnt data
shows the highly suitable area for orchids in Goa is approximately 1,005km2,
which is 27% of the total geographic area of the state.
Keywords: Endemic, MaxEnt, peninsular
India, protected area.
INTRODUCTION
The Western Ghats region of Goa lies in the extreme east of the state
and consists
of a wide belt of rich forest with abundant biodiversity. This area is extensively protected by
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
It covers almost 600km2 and has an average elevation of about
800m. Though, Goa State occupies just 2%
area of the Western Ghats, it harbours c. 7% of the endemic flowering plant
species of the Western Ghats (Joshi & Janarthanam
2004). Garcia de Orta
described some interesting medicinal plants from this region way back in 1565
which marks the initiation of the botanical studies in the region, but,
thereafter, for almost three centuries there was no contribution to the botany
of Goa. Roxburgh (1820) occasionally
referred to plants of this region as belonging to Konkan. Graham (1839) in his Catalogue of Bombay
Plants often referred to Lush, who had earlier collected plants from Goa. Dalzell & Gibson (1861) and Nairne (1894) have also referred to plants from this region
in their works. Most of these previous
workers were often referred to by Hooker (1872–1897) in his majestic work on
the Flora of British India in the context of plants occurring in Konkan and Goa
in particular. Dalgado
(1898) enumerated plants occurring in Goa and Sawantwadi
based on earlier published reports but there was no orchid included in the
enumeration. Subsequently, several
botanists have made extensive plant collections in adjacent parts of Goa. Vartak (1966)
reported 65 species of orchids belonging to 30 genera from Karnataka and
Maharashtra including a few orchids from Goa, followed by Rao (1986) 21 species
from Goa, Parab (2009) 26 species belonging to 20
genera from Goa and Mandar & Lakshminarasimhan
(2013) presented the floristic account of Molem
National Park which includes 34 species of orchids. Despite all these, the state of Goa is poorly explored in terms
of orchid diversity. As such, the
Botanical Survey of India launched a pilot project on exploration of orchids of
Goa State covering all the protected areas (PAs), which resulted in several new
distributional records of orchids for Goa (Jalal et al. 2015a,b; Jalal &
Jayanthi 2016a,b; Jalal 2017). During
the survey, taxonomic inventory of orchids was carried out in different PAs,
and the status of orchids was documented.
In the present work, an attempt has also been made to predict the
suitability of potential orchid rich area based on MaxEnt
(maximum entropy) niche approach (Phillips et al. 2006; Phillips & Dudik 2008).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study area
The state of Goa is located on the Indian west coast nestled between
Maharashtra and Karnataka. The total
geographical area of the state is approximately 3,702km2. The state stretches out to a length of 105km
from north to south and 60km wide from east to west and is divided into two
districts, North Goa and South Goa (Figure 1).
North Goa district comprises of six talukas, namely, Pernem,
Bardez, Tiswadi, Bicholim, Ponda, and Sattari while the South Goa district comprises of six
talukas, namely, Dharbandora, Mormugao,
Salcete, Quepem, Sanguem, and Canacona (Figure 1). Physiographically, Goa is divided into three main regions,
viz., i) the eastern Sahyadris—sub-region
of the Western Ghats, and covering ~43% of the total state area, ii) the central
uplands—the tract between the coast and the Ghats, consisting of rolling hills,
slopes and valleys, which covers ~35% of the state area, and iii) the western
coastal plains—the coastal belt which accounts for ~22% of the total area of
the state. As per Champion & Seth
(1968) classification of forest types of India, the forests of Goa fall in the
following types: i) estuarine vegetation consisting
of mangrove species along narrow muddy banks of rivers, ii) strand vegetation
along the coastal belts, iii) plateau vegetation confined especially in low
altitudes, and iv) semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. It has a tropical monsoon climate and the
region is generally warm and humid throughout the year. The temperature ranges from 20°C to 34°C, and
atmospheric humidity ranges from 60% to 90% throughout the year due to the
proximity of the state to the Arabian Sea.
The average annual rainfall received in the state is about 3200mm. Over 90% of annual rainfall occurs during
monsoon months of June to September (Ibrampurkar
2012). Goa is the only state in India
which has protected the complete Western Ghats section within the state. The state has one national park (Bhagwan Mahavir) and six wildlife sanctuaries, which
contributes about 52% of the forested area.
Data
collection
After obtaining the survey permission from Forest Department of Goa,
botanical explorations were undertaken from August 2015 to 2017, in different
districts of Goa covering all the protected areas. Orchid species in flowering and fruiting
stages were collected and photographed.
All macro-morphological characters, such as vegetative and floral
structures, were likewise recorded in the field. Species in the non-flowering stage were
collected and maintained as living collections for further studies. The geographical co-ordinate of each orchid
was recorded using Garmin GPS etrex30.
The herbarium specimens were processed following Jain & Rao
(1977). Collected specimens were
identified using Cooke (1967), Santapau & Kapadia
(1966) and Abraham & Vatsala (1981). All the herbarium specimens collected, were
deposited in the Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Pune (BSI).
A total 552 GPS records were collected during the field survey for
species distribution model. This study
was restricted only to species with five or more occurrence records, thus 49
species were taken for modeling purposes. Nineteen bioclimatic variables (Hijmans et al. 2005) derived from climatic data from the
1950–2000 period were used. All variables
were reduced to a grid resolution of 30 arc-seconds or 0.0083330 (approximately
1km2) for the analysis. MaxEnt ver. 3.3 was used for species prediction modeling as it works with presence-only data (Phillips et
al. 2006). The analysis was performed
using the default parameters: maximum iterations to 500 and using convergence
threshold in 1.0E-5. Duplicate presence
records were removed by the program prior to model development. For the potential habitat mapcells
reported by MaxEnt, cell values of 1 are considered
the most suitable, whereas closer to zero regarded as less suitable. The probability values that were equal or
greater than a threshold value of 0.5 indicates the potential suitable habitat
of a species (Phillips et al. 2006). The
MaxEnt produces continous
outputs of potential habitat suitability ranging from 0 to 1, which were
further reclassified into two classes—suitable and unsuitable. The threshold was selected as per ‘minimum
training presence’ threshold technique limits.
The priority areas were calculated by summing up the thresholded
binary maps of all 49 species and reclassifing the
grid cells. The priority zones were
further divided into low, medium and high zones for the sake of convenience.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present outcome is based on intensive field surveys as well as
information collected from different herbaria and literature. A total of 68
species of orchids belonging to 28 genera were documented, of which 42 are
epiphytic and 26 are terrestrial (Table 1) (Images 1–3).
In the present survey presence of 58 species were confirmed and the
remaining 10 species were included based on herbarium records and literature
(Images 4–67). Habenaria,
Dendrobium and Oberonia were the
most species rich genera in the study area.
Twenty-eight species were endemic, of which 23 species are restricted to
the Western Ghats, while two are endemic to peninsular India and three are
Indian endemic. Three broad habitats
were categorized for orchids, viz., semi-evergreen forests, moist-deciduous
forests, and plateaus (Fig 2). The most
favourable habitat was found to be semi-evergreen forests hosting 40 species
followed by moist-deciduous forests (37 species). Very few terrestrial orchids were reported
from plateaus (6 species), which are mainly found at higher elevations. These plateaus are threatened due to local
grazing. In Goa, these plateaus are
known as ‘sada’.
Distribution of orchids in Goa is concentrated mainly in the Western Ghats
region, which accounts for 86% of the total orchid diversity of the state (Fig.
3). The high undulating mountains are
covered with semi-evergreen forests and provide suitable habitats for many
endemic orchids. Half a dozen important
rivers, e.g., Mandovi, Mhadei,
and Zuari, flow between these mountains and maintain
high humidity levels throughout the year which is an important factor for the
growth and development of epiphytic orchids.
The entire Western Ghats of the state is covered under protected areas
and there is no direct threat to these orchids; however, a few human
settlements still exist inside the wildlife sanctuary as a result of which some
pockets of these natural habitats are disturbed due to lopping of forests and
from cattle grazing. The central upland
is a transition zone between the Western Ghats and the coastal plains. The area, adjoining the Western Ghats, has
semi-evergreen and moist-deciduous forests at the base of the hills which
provide a very favorable habitat for epiphytic as
well as terrestrial orchids. These
forests are moderately dense and receive less intense sunlight and have high
humidity as well. It has an average
height ranging 30–100 m and most of the landscape is covered with coconut
palms, paddy fields, betelnut farms, commercial
establishments, human settlements, and many active iron ore mines. A total of 18 species are distributed in this
part of which eight are endemic. Threats
to the orchids are high in this part as many forest patches are being cleared
for developmental purposes and new mining activities. Large forest patches are private or community
land for which mining clearance is not
necessary. The rampant encroachment is
destroying the pristine forest habitat.
Species such as Acampe praemorsa, Bulbophyllum sterile,
Cymbidium bicolor, Dendrobium ovatum,
and Rhynchostylis retusa
are encountered mostly in such disturbed habitats, along roadside and forests
edges.
The coastal plains have no orchid presence. This is a narrow stretch of
low-lying area dominated by estuarine mangroves.
In the present survey all the protected areas of Goa were also surveyed
to know the orchid diversity and to identify the best protected area for in
situ conservation. The findings reveal that Mhadei
Wildlife Sanctuary has orchid richness (Fig. 4). This sanctuary covers most of
the northeastern portion of Goa and the average
rainfall in this region is above 3,200mm.
Figure 5 represents summation of potential orchid distribution of 49
orchid species in Goa (constituting 72% of total orchids of Goa) which was
predicted using MaxEnt algorithm. The output has been further categorized into
areas with high (21–34 species), medium (8–21 species) and low (less than 8
species) richness or suitability zones.
The high richness zone is dominated by moist-decidous
forests interspersed with semi-evergreen forests and open plateaus, which are
suitable for orchids. Many endemic
species are restricted to the evergreen forest habitat pointing towards high
habitat specificity and also towards the ecological importance of these
habitats. Approximately, 1,005km2
is found to be highly suitable for orchids, which is 27% of the total
geographic area of Goa State.
Table 1. List of orchids of Goa.
|
Name
of species |
Habit |
Phenology |
Endemic |
Habitat |
Herbarium number
|
Occurrence
in different protected areas |
||||
Mhadei |
Mollem |
Bondla |
Netravali
|
Cotigaon |
|||||||
1 |
Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann |
E |
Apr–Dec |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203603 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
2 |
Aerides crispa Lindl. |
E |
May–Jun |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203637 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
|
3 |
Aerides
maculosa Lindl. |
E |
May–Jul |
EPI
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203745 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
4 |
Aerides ringens (Lindl.) C.E.C.Fisch. |
E |
Mar–Jul. |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203698A |
|
+ |
|
|
+ |
5 |
Bulbophyllum
sterile (Lam.) Suresh |
E |
Dec–May |
WG |
MDF |
JSJ
203682 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
6 |
Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay |
E |
Jun–Nov |
|
MSD, SEF |
JSJ
203615 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
7 |
Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Rchb.f. |
E |
Mar–Apr |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203601 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
8 |
Cymbidium
bicolor Lindl. |
E |
May–Jun |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203687 |
|
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
9 |
Dendrobium
aqueum Lindl. |
E |
Sep–Dec |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203667 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
10 |
Dendrobium
barbatulum Lindl. |
E |
Jan–May |
WG |
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203613 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
11 |
Dendrobium
crepidatum Lindl. |
E |
Jan–Mar |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203697 |
|
|
|
|
+ |
12 |
Dendrobium
herbaceum Lindl. |
E |
Feb–Mar |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203630 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
13 |
Dendrobium
lawianum Lindl. |
E |
Mar–Apr |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203634 |
|
|
|
|
+ |
14 |
Dendrobium
macrostachyum Lindl. |
E |
May–Jun |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203707 |
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
15 |
Dendrobium
microbulbon A.Rich. |
E |
Dec–Jan |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203666 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
16 |
Dendrobium
nanum Hook.f. |
E |
Jul–
Aug |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203632 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
17 |
Dendrobium
ovatum (L.) Kranzl. |
E |
Sep–Feb |
WG |
MDF |
JSJ
203696 |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
18 |
Dendrobium
nodosum Dalzell |
E |
Jul–Aug |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203641 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
19 |
Dendrobium
peguanum Lindl. |
E |
Oct–Dec |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203743 |
|
|
|
|
|
20 |
Diplocentrum congestum Wight |
E |
Apr–May |
WG |
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203754 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
21 |
Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh |
T |
May–Jun |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203628 |
+ |
|
|
+ |
|
22 |
Gastrochilus flabelliformis
(Blatt. & McCann) C.J. Saldanha |
E |
Apr–Jun |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203742 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
23 |
Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. |
T |
Jun–Jul |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203610 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
24 |
Habenaria crinifera Lindl. |
T |
Jul–Aug |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203640 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
25 |
Habenaria diphylla (Nimmo)
Dalzell |
T |
Aug–Sep |
|
MDF |
MND
186774 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
26 |
Habenaria elwesii Hook.f. |
T |
Aug–Sep |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203765 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
27 |
Habenaria foliosa A.Rich. |
T |
Jul–Aug |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203665 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
28 |
Habenaria grandifloriformis
Blatt. & McCann |
T |
May–Jul |
EPI |
PL |
JSJ
203757 |
|
|
|
|
|
29 |
Habenaria heyneana Lindl. |
T |
Jul–Sep |
WG |
PL |
JSJ
203673 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
30 |
Habenaria longicorniculata
Graham |
T |
Aug–Sep |
|
PL |
JSJ
203779 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
|
31 |
Habenaria marginata Colebr. |
T |
Sep–Oct |
|
SEF |
RSR
103443 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
32 |
Habenaria multicaudata Sedgw. |
T |
Aug–Sep |
WG |
SEF |
NPS124207 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
33 |
Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. |
T |
Aug–Sep |
|
MDF |
*** |
|
+ |
|
|
|
34 |
Habenaria rariflora A.Rich. |
T |
Jul–Aug |
WG |
PL |
JSJ
203768 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
35 |
Habenaria suaveolens Dalzell |
T |
Jul–Sep |
WG |
PL |
JSJ
203668 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
36 |
Liparis deflexa Hook.f. |
T |
Aug–Sep |
|
MDF |
MND179179 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
37 |
Liparis odorata (Willd.)
Lindl. |
T |
Jun–Sep |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203762 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
38 |
Luisia tenuifolia Blume |
E |
Mar–Apr |
|
MDF, SEF |
MND179064 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
39 |
Luisia zeylanica Lindl. |
E |
May–Jun |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203621 |
+ |
|
|
+ |
+ |
40 |
Malaxis
versicolor (Lindl.) Abeyw. |
T |
Jul–Aug |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203769 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
41 |
Nervilia concolor (Blume) Schltr. |
T |
May–Aug |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203674 |
|
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
42 |
Nervilia crociformis (Zoll. &Moritzi) Seidenf. |
T |
Jun–Aug |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203647 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
43 |
Oberonia brachyphylla Blatter
& McCann |
E |
May–Jun |
|
SEF |
V&SR1528 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
44 |
Oberonia brunoniana Wight |
E |
Feb–Mar |
WG |
MDF |
*** |
+ |
|
|
+ |
|
45 |
Oberonia mucronata (D. Don)
Ormerod & Seidenf. |
E |
Sep–Oct |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203715 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
46 |
Oberonia recurvaLindl. |
E |
Sep–Oct |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203770 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
47 |
Oberonia verticillata Wight |
E |
Sep–Oct |
WG |
MDF |
JSJ
203708 |
|
|
|
+ |
|
48 |
Pecteilis gigantea (Sm.) Raf. |
T |
Sep–Oct |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203766 |
|
+ |
|
+ |
|
49 |
Peristylus aristatus Lindl. |
T |
Jul–Sep |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203629 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
50 |
Peristylus densus (Lindl.) Santapau & Kapadia |
T |
Jul–Sep |
|
PL |
JSJ
203643 |
+ |
|
|
+ |
|
51 |
Peristylus plantagineus (Lindl.) Lindl. |
T |
Jul–Sep |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203645 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
52 |
Peristylus stocksii (Hook.f.) Kraenzl. |
T |
Jul–Sep |
IE |
SEF |
JSJ
203646 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
53 |
Phalaenopsis
deliciosaRchb.f. |
E |
Aug–Sep |
|
SEF |
CRJ184871 |
|
|
|
|
+ |
54 |
Pholidota imbricata Lindl |
E |
Jun–Jul |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203614 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
55 |
Pinalia reticosa (Wight) Kuntze |
E |
May–Jun |
IE |
SEF |
JSJ
203649 |
+ |
|
|
|
|
56 |
Porpax exilis (Hook.f.)
Schuit., Y.P.Ng &
H.A.Pedersen |
E |
Oct–Dec |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203642 |
+ |
|
|
+ |
|
57 |
Porpax filiformis (Wight) Schuit., Y.P.Ng & H.A.Pedersen |
E |
Jul–Aug |
WG |
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203604 |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
58 |
Porpax jerdoniana (Wight)
Rolfe |
E |
Jun–Jul |
IE |
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203606 |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
59 |
Porpax microchilos (Dalzell) Schuit., Y.P.Ng & H.A.Pedersen |
E |
Jul–Aug |
WG |
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203648 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
60 |
Porpax
reticulata Lindl. |
E |
Apr–Jun |
|
MDF, SEF |
JSJ
203755 |
+ |
+ |
|
|
|
61 |
Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Bl. |
E |
Jun–Jul |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203729 |
|
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
62 |
Smithsonia straminea C.J.Saldanha |
E |
May–Jun |
WG |
MDF |
JSJ
203756 |
+ |
|
|
+ |
+ |
63 |
Smithsonia viridiflora (Dalzell) C.J.Saldanha |
E |
May–Jun |
WG |
SEF |
JSJ
203721 |
|
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
64 |
Tropidia angulosa (Lindl.) Blume |
T |
Jan–Feb |
|
SEF |
MND187515 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
65 |
Vanda
tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don |
E |
May–Jun |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203741 |
+ |
+ |
|
|
+ |
66 |
Vanda
testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. |
E |
May–Jun |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203607 |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
67 |
Vanda
wightii Rchb.f. |
E |
Sep–Oct |
|
MDF |
JSJ
203700 |
|
+ |
|
|
|
68 |
Zeuxine longilabris (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook.f. |
T |
Feb–Mar |
|
SEF |
JSJ
203611 |
+ |
+ |
|
|
|
E—Epiphytic | T—Terrestrial | EPI—Endemic to
Peninsular India | WG—Western Ghats | IE—Indian Endemic | SEF—Semi-evergreen
Forest | MDF—Moist Deciduous forest | PL—Plateau | ***—Included from published
record.
For
figures & images - - click here
REFERENCES
Abraham, S. & P. Vatsala (1981). Introduction to Orchids. Tropical Botanic Garden and
Research Institute. Trivandrum, Kerala, India, 533pp.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of Forest
Types of India. Manager of Publications, Government of India, Delhi, 404pp.
Cooke, T. (1967). Orchidaceae, pp. 174–228. In: The Flora of
the Presidency of Bombay III. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 649pp.
Dalgado, D.G. (1898). Flora de Goa e Savantwadi. Imprensa Nacional
Lisbon, 288pp.
Dalzell, A.N. & A. Gibson (1861). The Bombay Flora.
Education Society’s Press, Calcutta, iv+112pp.
Datar, M.N. & P. Lakshminarasimhan (2013). Checklist of wild angiosperms of Bhagwan Mahavir (Molem) National
Park, Goa, India. Checklist 9: 186–207.
Graham, J. (1839). A Catalogue of the Plants Growing in Bombay and its Vicinity. Government
Press, Bombay, iv+254pp+ix
Hijmans, R.J., S.E. Cameron, J.L. Parra,
P.G. Jones & A. Jarvis (2005). Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces
for global land areas. International Journal Climatology 25: 1965–1978. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1276
Hooker, J.D. (1872–1897). The Flora of British India. Vol. 1–7. L. Reeve & Co.
Ltd. Ashford Icent, London.
Ibrampurkar, M.M. (2012). Hydrological and
Hydrogeological Evaluation of Mhadei River Watershed
- In Goa and Karnataka, PhD Thesis, Goa University.
Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (1977). A Handbook of Field and
Herbarium Method. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New
Delhi, xvi+157pp.
Jalal, J.S., J. Jayanthi & P. Lakshminarasimhan
(2015a). Habenaria suaveolens Dalzell
(Orchidaceae), a new distributional record for Goa
State. Phytotaxonomy 15: 206–208.
Jalal, J.S., J. Jayanthi & P. Lakshminarasimhan
(2015b). Two species
of Peristylus Blume (Orchidaceae), new addition to the flora of Goa, Western
Ghats, India. Richardiana 16: 18–25.
Jalal, J.S. & J. Jayanthi (2016a). Vanda wightii
Rchb.f. (Orchidaceae): a
new record for Goa. Indian Journal of Forestry 39(2): 161–163.
Jalal, J.S. & J. Jayanthi (2016b). New addition of four Dendrobium
species to orchid flora of Goa. Phytotaxonomy
16: 31–34.
Jalal, J.S. (2018). New Distributional Records of Orchids from Goa. Indian Journal of
Forestry 40(2): 197–200.
Nairne, A.K. (1894). The Flowering Plants of
Western India. W. H. Allen And Company Limited, London, 432pp.
Parab, G.V. (2009). Micropropagation, Biochemical
and Molecular Studies of Orchids of Western Ghats of Goa and its Environs. PhD
Thesis, Department of Botany, Goa University, 134pp.
Phillips, S.J., R.P. Anderson & R.E. Schapire
(2006). Maximum
entropy modelling of species geographic distributions. Ecological Modelling
190: 231–259.
Phillips, S.J. & M. Dudik (2008). Modeling
of species distributions with Maxent: new extensions and a comprehensiveevaluation.
Ecography 31: 161–175.
Rao, R.S. (1986). Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Vol. II.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 544p.
Roxburg, W. (1820). Flora Indica, or,
Descriptions of Indian Plants, Vol. 1., (Carey ed.). Serampore,
487pp.
Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966). The Orchids of Bombay.
Govt. of India Press, Calcutta, vi+239pp.
Vartak, V.D. (1966). Enumeration of Plants from Gomantak. Maharashtra Association for Cultivation of
Science, Pune, 171pp.
Vaishali, C.J. & M.K. Janarthanam (2004). The diversity of life-form type,
habitat preference and phenology of the endemics in the Goa region of the
Western Ghats, India. Journal of Biogeography 31(8): 1227–1237.