Journal of
Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2018 | 10(8): 12082–12085
The term human-wildlife conflict creates more problems than it resolves:
better labels should be considered
Priya Davidar
Sigur Nature Trust, Chadapatti,
Mavinhalla P.O., Nilgiris,
Tamil Nadu 643223, India
pdavidar@gmail.com
Abstract: A critique of the extensive use of the term human-wildlife
conflict to describe a variety of situations involving wildlife.
Keywords: Anthropocene, forest fringes,
human-wildlife conflict, species extinction, terminology.
doi: http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4319.10.8.12082-12085
Editor: Mewa Singh, University of Mysore, Mysuru, India. Date
of publication: 26 July 2018 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms
# 4319 | Received 07 June 2018 | Finally accepted 22 June 2018
Citation: Davidar, P. (2018). The term human-wildlife conflict creates
more problems than it resolves: better labels should be considered. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 10(8): 12082–12085; http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4319.10.8.12082-12085
Copyright: © Davidar 2018. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and
the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author declares no competing interests.
Author
Details: Priya Davidar is a conservation biologist working on
forest ecology, pollination biology and endangered species conservation. She
retired as a Professor at the Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences , Pondicherry University. Her current project is analysing tree distributions at the biogeographical
scale, and the conservation genetics of endangered species such as the Asian
Elephant and Nilgiri Tahr
Acknowledgements: I thank Dr. Jean-Philippe Puyravaud
for insights into this debate.
Humans have had an uneasy
relationship with wild animals since the dawn of human evolution as they preyed upon, were prey, and
competed with wild animals (Knight 2013). As human populations dispersed across the globe during the Late
Quaternary they were the main driver of the extinction of large mammalian fauna
(Bartlett et al. 2016). For example,
human dispersal into North America during the Pleistocene probably caused the
extinction of 35 genera of mammals (Faith & Surovell
2009). Sites with mass killing of megafauna by Palaeolithic hunters have been documented
across continents (Barnosky et al. 2004).
The remnants of this rivalry can be
perceived in cultural practices of traditional societies, and cultural beliefs involving dangerous
animals such as werewolves, vampires and others which
are a metaphor of the pervasive human belief of the ‘beast within’, ‘bestial’,
etc. Violent killing by humans is
denounced in the idiom of natural predation where criminals and enemies are
termed ‘jackals’, ‘wolves’, etc. (Knight 2013).
This
rivalry is closely inter-twined with human expansion into wilderness habitats
(Knight 2013). Even today, this continues, and tends to be the most intense in
settlements at the forest edge, in many cases due to colonization of forests by
frontier populations (Rudel & Roper 1997).
The
modern depiction of this rivalry is termed human-wildlife conflict (HWC),
defined by the IUCN World Parks Congress (Madden 2004) as “…when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of
humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife.
These conflicts may result when wildlife damage crops, injure or kill domestic
animals, threaten or kill people”.
In
terms of usage, a conflict is typically defined as ‘an active disagreement
between people with opposing opinions or principles; or fighting between two or
more groups of people or countries’ (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/conflict,
viewed 08–04–2018).
Therefore,
HWC suggests ‘conscious antagonism between wildlife and humans’ and implies
that wildlife act consciously and often places wildlife entities on an equal
footing with people in the role of combatants, even though they cannot
represent themselves in the political sphere against people (Raik et al. 2008; Peterson et al. 2010). The use of this term in which wildlife are
blamed for every encounter or incident places culpability entirely on the wildlife
side of the equation, suggesting that wildlife assert their interests to
undermine human goals (Woodroffe et al. 2005). This promotes antagonism towards wildlife
that can exacerbate the problem, hinder resolution and can result in people
directing their anger, frustration on wildlife with potentially adverse
conservation outcomes for endangered species (Peterson et al. 2002; Brook et
al. 2003; Redpath et al. 2015). Besides the HWC approach is often ineffective
because it has led to purely technical solutions being proposed that may have
worked in particular circumstances but have not addressed the underlying issues
(Redpath et al. 2015). For example translocating
wildlife to resolve ‘conflicts’ has often failed to achieve its objectives due
to lack of understanding of the species’ behaviour and/or the underlying issues
(Athreya et al. 2011). Often the increasing human
population densities and expansion into forest areas that result in such
incidents (Newmark et al. 1994) are not addressed.
To the best of my knowledge, the
earliest reference to ‘conflict’ between wild animals and humans was in the early 1990s
(Sukumar 1991; Newmark et
al. 1994). Before the term ‘conflict’ became popular,
more precise terms such as crop raiding and livestock depredation were used to
describe incidents involving wildlife (Jhala 1993; Oli et al. 1994). The use of this term has increased over time: Treves (2009)
carried out a Google search based on the keywords “human AND wildlife AND
conflict OR depredation OR damage”, and Google Scholar returned 3140 hits
between 1992–1999, and 8060 between 2000 and 2007.
Its popularity stems from its simplicity and ease of usage to describe
a diversity of situations involving wildlife. Thereby it has become a buzz word used to amplify conservation initiatives, create
funding opportunities, increase research productivity and create a sense of
urgency that limits the array of potential solutions that may arise when the
situation is more accurately described (Peterson et al. 2010). In
many cases the damage or threat is exaggerated for gains, for example, in Japan
the scale of concern over bears greatly exceeds the actual damage done by the
animals (Knight 2013).
To
understand in what context this term human-wildlife conflict is used in
conservation literature, Peterson et al. (2010) carried out a meta-analysis of
422 case studies of HWC and found that over 95% of the 422 cases referred to
animal damage in some form to (i) resources such as
food, (ii) property, or (iii) attacks on people. Only one case represented a typical example
of ‘conflict’ where there was human retaliation against Magpies (Cracticus tibicen)
that repeatedly attacked specific humans that they considered threats (Warne
& Jones 2003). Less than 4% related
to human-human conflict such as those between conservationists and other
parties on how wildlife should be managed (Peterson et al. 2010).
Thus
human conflicts are often projected onto wildlife (Knight 2013), and may in
fact be a symbolic vehicle for expression of social conflict between people at
the local, national and international levels, such as between conservation
movements and developers or between people and protected area management termed
‘human-state conflict’ (Knight 2013). In
Japan, widespread concern about the bear is balanced by local support for the
bear, based on the premise that given the extent of human colonisation into
bear territory, it is humans that are problematic with regard to the bear and
not vice versa (Knight 2013). These
human-human conflicts need to be distinguished from human-wildlife impacts.
Therefore,
more precise description of the issue at hand may lead to better
solutions. For instance crop raiding is
a widespread problem in forest fringe areas where the cultivation of edible
crops attracts wild herbivores. When crop raiding is described as crop raiding
instead of as ‘conflict’ then better solutions may emerge depending on the
location, the crops cultivated and the herbivores in question. Whereas the
conflict terminology is provocative and emotional which could create more
problem than it solves, particularly if sensationalised by the media (Bhatia et
al. 2013; Redpath et al. 2013). In many cases rodents and
monkeys cause more economic loss to people than large mammals such as bears,
elephants and the great apes which take a
disproportionate amount of the blame (Knight 2013).
Therefore in the Anthropocene, where the rate
of species extinction is accelerating (Sanderson et al. 2002; Barnosky et al. 2011) there is a growing realization that
humans need to move beyond their past history which has framed the narrative
regarding wildlife. Finding ways to
increase tolerance and coexistence with wildlife (Madden 2004) is needed to
slow down the population declines of iconic megafauna. If not, future generations will no longer
have the privilege of sharing their world with large charismatic animals. There are many examples of human tolerance to
wildlife and acceptance of certain levels of loss of crops and livestock
(Knight 2013). To protect human
interests, however, innovative solutions need to be explored in forest fringe
areas to ameliorate the situation.
This
term which is problematic, semantically incorrect and which masks the
underlying complexities of particular situations,
needs to be avoided. It is well known
that language is a powerful tool that can intensify biases towards ethnic
groups, genders or minorities (Keeley 2011). Therefore the terminology that we apply will
make a difference to whether a species survives or disappears forever.
Human-wildlife
conflict is described as “when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact
negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact
the needs of wildlife. These conflicts may result when wildlife damage crops,
injure or kill domestic animals, threaten or kill people” (Madden 2004).
However, presenting wildlife in an antagonistic, anthropocentric and
indiscriminate manner harms conservation of these species (Redpath
et al. 2013). The usage of the term ‘conflict’ should be minimized and replaced
with accurate terms instead. We propose an example of non-exhaustive list of
terms, listed alphabetically that can be expended and refined.
Adequate terms |
Indicating |
Conservation welfare |
Emphasis on ethics and moral
responsibility towards species and populations |
Animal welfare |
Emphasis on ethics and moral
responsibility towards individuals |
Forestry damage |
Damages to tree plantations |
Crop damage |
Damages to agriculture or horticulture
crops by invertebrates |
Crop raiding |
Damages to agriculture or horticulture
crop by wild vertebrates |
Property damage |
Damages to houses, fences, walls, pipes
and electrical lines |
Livestock predation |
Predation of livestock by carnivores |
Snake bite |
Bites by venomous snakes |
Animal attack |
Accidental or deliberate attack on
people, excluding man-eating incidents |
Human predation |
Documented man-eating by carnivores |
Human-wildlife coexistence |
Promotion of wildlife conservation and
human needs by terminology that is less antagonistic |
Human-wildlife commensalism |
Wildlife such as snakes that are of
indirect benefit to humans by controlling pests |
Human-wildlife competition |
How humans and wildlife compete for
resources |
Human-wildlife tolerance |
How humans and wildlife avoid
competition |
Human attack |
Deliberate attack on animals by humans |
Dispute over protection |
Conflict over protected area management
and people – instead of human-state conflict |
Stakeholders dispute |
Disputes between stakeholders on how to
manage wildlife, social issues – instead of human-human conflict |
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