Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org
| 26 March 2018 | 10(3): 11361–11378
The status of NepalŐs mammals
Rajan Amin1, Hem Sagar Baral2,
Babu Ram Lamichhane3, Laxman Prasad Poudyal4, Samantha
Lee5, Shant Raj Jnawali6, Krishna Prasad Acharya7,
Gopal Prasad Upadhyaya8, Megh Bahadur Pandey9, Rinjan
Shrestha10, Dipesh Joshi11, Janine Griffiths12,
Ambika Prasad Khatiwada13 & Naresh
Subedi14
1 Zoological Society of London, Regents
Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
2 Zoological Society of London - Nepal
Office, PO Box 5867, Kathmandu Nepal and School of Environmental Sciences,
Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia
3 National Trust for Nature Conservation
(NTNC), POB 3712, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal
4 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, PO Box 860, Kathmandu,
Nepal
5
RSPB, Unit 1 Brantham Mill Industrial Estate, Bergholt Road, Manningtree,
Essex. CO11 1QT, UK
6,11 WWF Nepal, Baluwatar Kathmandu, Nepal
7 Department of
Forests, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal
8,9 Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation, PO Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal
10 World Wildlife Fund Canada, 410 Adelaide
St W, Toronto, ON M5V 1S8, Canada
12 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, , Richmond, TW9 3AE, UK
13,14 National Trust for Nature Conservation
(NTNC), POB 3712, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal
1 raj.amin@zsl.org (corresponding author), 2
hem.baral@zsl.org, 3 baburam@ntnc.org.np, 4 laxpoudyal@gmail.com,
5 samantha.lee@rspb.org.uk, 6 shant.jnawali@wwfnepal.org,
7 kpacharya1@hotmail.com, 8 upadhyay.gopal@gmail.com, 9
pandey.megh@gmail.com, 10 rshrestha@wwfcanada.org, 11
dipesh.joshi@wwfnepal.org,
12 janine.griffiths@zsl.org, 13 ambika.pd.khatiwada@gmail.com, 14
nareshsubedi@gmail.com
Abstract:
The main objectives of the Nepal National Mammal Red Data Book (RDB)
were to provide comprehensive and up-to-date accounts of 212 mammal species
recorded in Nepal, assess their status applying the IUCN Guidelines at Regional
Levels, identify threats and recommend the most practical measures for their
conservation. It is hoped that the
Mammal RDB will help Nepal achieve the Convention on Biological Diversity
target of preventing the extinction of known threatened species and improving
their conservation status. Of the
212 mammal species assessed, 49 species (23%) were listed as nationally
threatened. These comprise nine
(18%) Critically Endangered species, 26 (53%) Endangered species and 14 (29%)
Vulnerable species. One species was
considered regionally Extinct. A
total of seven species (3%) were considered Near Threatened and 83 species
(39%) were Data Deficient. Over
sixty percent of NepalŐs ungulates are threatened and almost half of NepalŐs
carnivores face extinction (45% threatened). Bats and small mammals are the least
known groups with 60 species being Data Deficient. Habitat
loss, degradation and fragmentation are the most significant threats. Other significant threats include
illegal hunting, small and fragmented
populations, reduction of prey base, human wildlife conflict and persecution,
climate change, invasive species, disease and inadequate knowledge and
research. Adequate measures to
address these threats are described.
It was also concluded that re-assessments of the status of certain mammal
groups be carried out every five years and the setting up of a national online
species database and mapping system would also greatly help in land-use
planning and policies.
Keywords: Biodiversity,
conservation, mammals, Nepal, Red List, threatened species.
doi: http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3712.10.3.11361-11378
Editor: Sanjay Molur, ZOO/WILD, Coimbatore, India. Date of publication: 26 March 2018 (online & print)
Manuscript
details: Ms # 3712 |
Received 02 August 2017 | Final received 11 December 2017 | Finally accepted 06
February 2018
Citation: Amin, R., H. S. Baral,
B.R. Lamichhane, L.P. Poudyal, S. Lee, S.R. Jnawali, K.P. Acharya, G.P.
Upadhyaya, M.B. Pandey, R. Shrestha, D. Joshi, J. Griffiths, A.P. Khatiwada
& N. Subedi (2018).
The
status of NepalŐs mammals. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(3): 11361–11378; http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3712.10.3.11361-11378
Copyright: © Amin et al. 2018. Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to
the authors and the source of publication.
Funding: Zoological Society of London.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author Details: Rajan Amin is a senior wildlife biologist at the Zoological Society of
London with over 25 years of experience in African and Asian grassland and
forest ecosystems and in developing long-term conservation projects for
threatened species. Hem Sagar Baral
has a PhD from the University of Amsterdam, and has been actively involved in
wildlife conservation for over 25 years.
Currently he is working as the head of Nepal conservation programme for
ZSL. Laxman Prasad Poudyal holds a MSc degree in Natural Resource Management and Rural
Development. He is the Ecologist at
the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal. Babu Ram
Lamichhane is interested in geo-spatial application for wildlife management
with a recent focus on human-wildlife interactions. Samantha Lee holds an MSc in Ecology,
Evolution and Conservation and is a senior conservation officer at the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). She contributed to this project in her
previous role with ZSL. Shanta Raj
Jnawali is Chief of Party of USAID-Hariyo Ban Program II and contributed on
this project as NTNCŐs Programme Director.
Krishna Prasad Acharya works for the Department of Forests, Nepal with
interest in human-wildlife conflict.
Gopal Prasad Upadhyaya and Megh Bahadur Pandey both served as Director
General of DNPWC during this study.
Rinjan Shrestha has a PhD in Wildlife Biology from the Norwegian
University of Life Sciences, and currently working as a lead
specialist/Asian big cats at the WWF-Canada. Dipesh Joshi and Janine Griffiths
contributed to this project in their previous role with ZSL. Ambika Prasad Khatiwada is the NTNC
Bardia NP Programme Manager and is currently researching pangolins and wild
dog. Naresh Subedi studied rhino
ecology and effect of invasive species, he serves as
NTNCŐs Terai Programme Coordinator.
Author Contribution: RA, HSB and SRJ conceived the idea; RA, HSB, BRL, DJ, JG, APK and SL
collected data and performed analysis; all authors wrote the manuscript.
Acknowledgements: We are indebted to the Zoological Society of London who provided funding
for the project. We thank Mr. Shaym Bajimaya, previous Director General of
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal for his support
to the project. At the National
Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) we thank former Member Secretary, Mr.
Juddha Bahadur Gurung, Executive Officer, Mr Ganga Jung Thapa and Program
Director, Ms. Sarita Jnawali. We
thank NTNC for hosting and organising two vital workshops that were held to
discuss mammal status, threats and categories as well as supporting the two
British scientists during their stay. At Himalayan Nature we thank Chairman,
Professor Karan Bahadur Shah and Director, Sharad Singh for their support. The work would not have been possible
without the help of a very large number of people who generously provided their
input. We warmly thank all of them including all those who attended the two
workshops for their enormous contributions.
INTRODUCTION
The IUCN Red List is the WorldŐs most
authoritative and objective inventory of the global status of plant and animal
species. It, however, is not always
possible to integrate this information at the global scale into conservation
planning and priority-setting at national level, where most conservation
policies are implemented. National
Red listing was introduced to resolve this issue (GŠrdenfors et
al. 2001) and guidelines for assessments at the national or regional level were
published (IUCN 2003). National Red
Lists can gauge the extinction risk faced by native species, provide
information about the rate of change of a nationŐs biodiversity over time, and
help in the development of effective conservation policies and action plans
based on robust and well established criteria. The approach can also provide an
excellent basis for measuring a countryŐs progress towards achieving one of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) targets ŇBy 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has
been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in
decline, has been improved and sustainedÓ.
In a relatively small area of
147,181km2, Nepal harbours an extraordinary variety of
landscapes, habitats, wildlife and cultures. Its diverse physiographic features range
from the Arctic high Himalayan peaks (the highest terrestrial ecosystem in the
world), to the tropical lowlands of the Terai. Also important is NepalŐs geographical
position in the central Himalayas, in a region of overlap between the
Palearctic realm to the north and the Oriental (Indomalayan) realm to the
south. Although it occupies only
0.1% of the worldŐs total landmass, Nepal is home to 3.2% and 1.1% of the
worldŐs known flora and fauna, respectively (MoFSc 2014), including around 4.2%
of the worldŐs known mammal species (Jnawali et al. 2011).
A large proportion (>23%) of the countryŐs landmass is designated as
protected areas, with 12 national parks, one wildlife reserve, one hunting
reserve and six conservation areas (Fig. 1). Between 2002 and 2013
eight areas were declared as protected forests (1,337km2); eight additional areas (6,701km2) have been proposed by the Government of Nepal because
of their high biodiversity, wildlife habitats and corridors (DoF 2015). In addition, 37 Important Bird Areas
(IBAs) have been identified (BCN and DNPWC in prep.).
Nepal Mammal Red Data Book
In October 2009, a team consisting of Nepalis
and two British scientists embarked on a project to compile the Nepal Mammal
Red Data Book (Jnawali et al. 2011), which was completed in March 2012. This Red List is the first comprehensive
status assessment of all NepalŐs mammal species using the IUCN Categories and
Criteria (IUCN
2003).
The results from this assessment are presented here.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Nepal National Red List work was initiated with the setting up of a
National Red List project steering committee which
included members of the Government of Nepal - Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation, National Trust for Nature Conservation and WWF-Nepal. Initially, a desk study of published and
unpublished literature was undertaken to compile a comprehensive bibliography
of references. Using this bibliography, a taxonomic list of mammals of Nepal
was prepared following the international rules of zoological nomenclature. Detailed draft reports for each species
annotated with relevant references were then compiled in an IUCN Species
Information Service Database for Regional Red Lists. This database was used as the reference
source to assess the threat status of all the mammal species using the IUCN
categories and criteria (IUCN 2003).
During the assessment process, two national Red List
workshops were held. The first
workshop in Chitwan National Park, in January 2010 (three days), was
specifically aimed at field managers and technicians who helped to check and
fill in information gaps in the species accounts. Initial species status
assessments were also undertaken.
Updated species reports were then circulated for further input prior to
the second workshop in Kathmandu, in April 2010. During the second workshop (two days),
the conservation status of all the mammal species were reviewed and final
conservation assessments were applied with main threats and recommendations for
each species. Each
workshop was attended by over 40 mammal experts.
Results
Following the international rules of zoological
nomenclature, a total of 212 mammal species including two endemic species
(Himalayan Field Mouse Apodemus gurkha and CsorbaŐs
Mouse-eared Myotis Myotis csorbai) has been recorded in Nepal. Twenty-nine of NepalŐs mammal species
are globally threatened and 17 species are globally Near Threatened (IUCN 2015,
Appendix 1).
In contrast, 49 (23%) species were assessed as nationally
threatened. The nationally
threatened species comprise nine (18%) Critically Endangered species, 26 (53%)
Endangered species, and 14 (29%) Vulnerable species (Appendix
1). One species (Pygmy Hog Porcula
salvania) was considered regionally Extinct.
A further seven species (3%) were considered Near
Threatened, meaning they are likely to be threatened in the near future if
current levels of threat continue.
Eighty-three species (39%) were classified Data Deficient. Four of the species were found after the
National Red List book was published (2012) and are listed as Data
Deficient. These are Rusty-spotted
Cat Prionailurus rubiginosus, PallasŐs Cat Otocolobus manul, Steppe Polecat Mustela eversmanii and
Ruddy
Mongoose Herpestes smithii (Chetri et al. 2014; Shrestha et al. 2014; Subba et
al. 2014; Lamichhane et al. 2016).
Ungulates (28 species) are the most threatened group of mammals in Nepal
with 17 species (61%) on the threatened list. This includes five Critically Endangered
species (Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra, Ganges
River Dolphin Platanista gangetica, Indian Chevrotain Moschiola
indica, Tibetan Gazelle Procapra picticaudata and Wild Yak Bos
mutus) and six Endangered species (Alpine Musk Deer Moschus
chrysogaster, Asian Elephant Elephas maximus, Greater
One-horned Rhino Rhinoceros unicornis, Hog Deer Axis
porcinus, Swamp Deer Rucervus duvaucelii and Water
Buffalo Bubalus arnee).
A further two species (7%) are Near Threatened (Fig. 2). In addition to the Pygmy Hog, the Indian
Spotted Chevrotain Moschiola
indica may also be regionally extinct as there have been no reports of this
species from Nepal since the 1970s.
Only two species (7%) of ungulates were considered Least Concern and six
species (21%) Data Deficient (Fig. 2).
Almost half of NepalŐs carnivores (47 species) are facing extinction (19
species) or will do so in the near future (2 species) (Fig. 3). The threatened species include two
Critically Endangered species (Grey Wolf Canis lupus and Brown
Bear Ursus arctos) and 12 Endangered species (Red Panda Ailurus
fulgens, Dhole Cuon alpinus, Striped Hyaena Hyaena hyaena, Smooth-coated
Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, Honey Badger Mellivora capensis, Sloth Bear Melursus
ursinus, Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa, Royal
Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris, Snow Leopard Panthera
uncia, Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus, Spotted
Linsang Prionodon pardicolor and Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus). Ten species (21%) were considered Least
Concern and sixteen species (34%) were classified as Data Deficient.
Primates (5 species) are currently considered the least threatened group
of mammals in Nepal with only the Assam Macaque Macaca assamensis assessed to
be the threatened (Vulnerable).
Himalayan Grey Langur Semnopithecus ajax has been
included based on observations by Brandon-Jones (2004) but requires concrete
evidence (IUCN 2015).
A quarter of Nepal mammals are bats (53 species) and more species can be
expected as they have been largely neglected in terms of research until recent
years. This is also reflected in the Red List assessment with 21 species (40%)
listed as Data Deficient. Five
species (9%) are considered threatened including the Critically Endangered
CsorbaŐs Mouse-eared Myotis Myotis csorbai and the Great
Evening Bat la io, and further three species (6%)
considered Near Threatened (Fig. 4).
Although small mammals make up over a third of all mammal species in
Nepal (79 species), it is the most underrepresented group in terms of available
information and research (Fig. 5).
About half the small mammal species are considered Data Deficient (39
species, 49%). Thirty-three species
(42%) are listed as Least Concern and seven species (9%) considered Endangered
(Black Giant Squirrel Ratufa bicolour, Himalayan
Field Mouse Apodemus gurkha, Himalayan Pika Ochotona
himalayana, Himalayan Water Shrew Chimarrogale himalayica, Hispid Hare
Caprolagus
hispidus, Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and Chinese
Pangolin Manis pentadactyla).
DISCUSSION
Threats to NepalŐs mammals
Whilst Nepal is rich
in biodiversity, it is one of the least developed countries in the world,
ranked in the low human development category, positioned at 145 out of 187
countries and territories in 2014 (United Nations Development Programme, UNDP
2014). The countryŐs rapidly
increasing human population is putting huge pressure on natural resources and
wildlife with shortages of water and electricity; even meeting basic human
needs is a struggle. The main threats to NepalŐs mammals include:
Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation
Habitat loss,
degradation and fragmentation are the most important threats to NepalŐs mammals
(Appendix 2). These include loss of
forests, grasslands and wetlands due to the encroachment of settlements and
especially due to agriculture and unsustainable resource extraction, such as
logging for local and commercial use and sand and gravel mining of river beds.
Extreme natural and climatic events such as floods, earthquakes and
landslides also cause habitat loss and degradation.
Fragmentation of habitats is particularly affecting many wide ranging species such as the Royal Bengal Tiger, Asian
Elephant and Snow Leopard. The
lowland grassland region of Terai has experienced significant habitat loss and
fragmentation. Eradication of malaria in the mid-1950s resulted in large scale settlements in the Terai and today almost half
of NepalŐs population resides here in an area representing only 14 percent of
the total area of the country (CBS 2009; Grimmett et al. 2009; Pant 2010). Outside
protected areas there are no significant remaining grassland areas that are
capable of supporting lowland grassland species (Jnawali et al. 2011).
Forests
and grasslands are being degraded by overgrazing and excessive burning, and
removal of undergrowth to provide fodder for livestock. The Pygmy
Hog is now considered Regionally Extinct mainly due to indiscriminate burning
of grasslands and habitat loss. Similarly, Hispid Hare Caprolagus
hispidus has experienced dramatic declines and is now considered Endangered.
One quarter of NepalŐs forest area is heavily degraded (World Bank
2008). The deforestation of primary
forests and lack of planned regeneration are reducing the amount of suitable
habitat available to many bat species, which are also suffering from a lack of
protection of roosting sites.
Lowland
grasslands in protected areas are suffering from inappropriate grassland
management including intensive annual cutting and burning, and also ploughing,
which alter species composition (Baral 2001; Jnawali et al. 2011). Over-grazing by domestic livestock,
fodder collection and human disturbance are also degrading grasslands.
The spread of
invasive plant species is making it very difficult for some mammal species to
feed. One rapidly spreading
invasive is Mikania Mikania micrantha which is
blanketing Terai floodplain vegetation (Murphy et al. 2013). For example over forty percent of the
Greater One-horned Rhino Rhinoceros
unicornis habitat is affected by
Mikania in Chitwan National Park which has over 90
percent of NepalŐs rhinos.
Chemical poisoning
Water pollution
from households and industrial discharges and agricultural run-off is
seriously degrading lowland wetlands. Diffused
pollution from fertilizers has led to over-enrichment in many wetlands in the
lowlands. While the effect of water-borne pollution on wildlife and the
environment in Nepal is poorly known, the over-use of pesticides and other
chemicals in the country and evidence of failing to adhere to government
regulations has been well documented (e.g., Palikhe 2005; Nepal Forum for
Justice 2006). The Critically Endangered Ganges River Dolphin Platanista
gangetica gangetica is now restricted to
very few river systems and these systems continue to be threatened. These are
also important habitats for many other species including the fishing cat Prionailurus
viverrinus and otters.
Poaching and illegal trade
Poaching remains a significant threat to many species. Even within protected areas, animals
continue to be illegally hunted for commercial or subsistence purposes. The Greater One-horned Rhino, Royal
Bengal Tiger, Alpine Musk Deer and Indian and Chinese Pangolins are some of the
most seriously affected species, illegally hunted for commercial trade in their
body parts and used for medicinal purposes and cosmetics. Many species illegally hunted for
subsistence go unrecorded.
Reduction
in prey base
A large number of ungulate species are now considered threatened in
Nepal. Many of these species
constitute the main prey base for a number of carnivores, and for large
predators such as the Royal Bengal Tiger, prey depletion is considered a major
factor in their decline (Karanth & Stith 1999).
Human-wildlife
conflict and persecution
Human-wildlife conflict often occurs as a result of crop raiding,
predation on livestock and damage to property due to the increasingly close
proximity of people and wildlife and with increasing habitat degradation and
declining prey numbers. This
situation is escalated often by human fear and frequently results in the injury
or fatality on both sides. The
Asian Elephant, Leopard Panthera pardus, Greater One-horned Rhino, Royal
Bengal Tiger and bears are most commonly involved in attacks on people (Acharya
et al. 2016). Methods to discourage
wildlife from invading human occupied areas often include non-discriminative
and fatal measures, such as poisoned bait and electrocution.
Some species are unduly persecuted due to traditional beliefs and a lack
of awareness. Negative attitudes
towards bats based on myth and folklore result in persecution, despite their
great importance for pollination, seed dispersal, and pest and disease
control. Small mammals are
considered pests and transmitters of disease. As such, the negative attitude and
association of unhygienic conditions towards rodents and small mammals often
results in non-species specific persecution, commonly using poisoning.
Disturbance
The gathering of
Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), including the highly valuable Yarsagumba Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs), by influxes of
large numbers of people annually, is affecting many high-altitude areas. This is leading to high levels of
disturbance to mammals and other wildlife, including poaching, and forest
losses and degradation due to fuel wood collection (Jnawali et al. 2011; BCN
and DNPWC in prep.). Disturbance is
a widespread threat to bat populations, especially around roosting sites.
Disease
The threat of disease to wildlife in Nepal is largely un-quantified for
many species. But due to the close association, dietary and habitat overlap of
many wild and domestic species, the risk of
transmission of diseases such as tuberculosis, mange, foot-and-mouth disease
and rabies is ever increasing.
Widespread prevalence of tuberculosis in captive Asian Elephants (ca.
25% of population) of Nepal was detected in the past decade. Segregation and
treatment of the infected individuals have reduced tuberculosis prevalence in
captive populations but still remains a threat as it could easily pass to wild populations which would be catastrophic. Rapid decline in vulture populations is
leading to a situation where large number of dogs and other scavengers
congregate to feed on the carcasses increasing the possibilities of rapid disease
transmission among themselves and ultimately transmitting it to wild species
such as Dhole, Lynx Lynx lynx and Golden Jackal Canis
aureus.
Small
and/or fragmented populations
Fragmented, small and isolated populations are at greater risk from demographic
and environment stochasticity (Purvis et al. 2000). Species with small populations, such as
the Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra and Ganges River Dolphin may also
suffer from loss of heterozygozity and inbreeding depression.
Climate change
The impacts of climate change on NepalŐs mammals are poorly
understood. Some species will be
able to migrate through fragmented landscapes whilst others may not be able to
do so. Some of NepalŐs threatened
mammals are largely confined to the protected areas, notably grassland
mammals. As the climate changes,
habitats, particularly floodplain grasslands, in these protected areas may
eventually become no longer suitable for these mammals. Furthermore, as natural habitats outside
protected areas have been converted to agriculture or developed areas, the
grassland mammals will have no suitable habitat to colonise (Adhikari 1999;
Jnawali & Wegge 1999).
Many forest mammals, including a high proportion of threatened forest
species, depend on moist forests and are likely to lose their habitat if the
climate becomes drier. High alpine
areas are also likely to be significantly affected by climate change with
resulting consequences to high altitude species such as the Snow Leopard and
its prey species.
Linear structures and hydropower
Recently,
development of many linear structures has come up as a priority national agenda
for the country. Such structures include highways and railroads, high voltage
electric lines, canals as well as some larger airports. Such linear structures act as obstacles
for migration of many animals, especially mammals; and also significantly
increase mortality while crossing these barriers.
NepalŐs high
annual precipitation and dense river networks provide high potential for
hydroelectricity resulting in a significant increase in hydropower plants in recent
years. Dams can inundate important habitats, lead to associated
development, displace people into new sensitive habitats, and can alter local
habitats.
Intensification of agriculture
In recent years,
agriculture has been intensified in many areas, especially in the Terai. This has led to a loss of uncultivated
field corners and edges which often supported bushes
and herbaceous vegetation. Trees
have been lost from field boundaries.
All these microhabitats form valuable feeding and breeding sites for
small mammals.
Limited
conservation measures, and inadequate knowledge and research
Forty percent of NepalŐs mammals are considered Data Deficient. This situation is especially acute for
small mammals and bats of which 49% and 40% respectively are lacking in even
baseline data on their population size, distribution and ecology. Without this
information, it is difficult to develop effective conservation programmes for
these species or groups and to assess their risk of extinction.
NepalŐs national
policy and research priorities are ambitious, but targets have not been met due
to lack of funding and support in already poorly resourced government
departments. Since the early years
of its establishment, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation (DNPWC) has been under-resourced in terms of finances and trained
manpower, so crippling its effective conservation work in the country.
Despite the many conservation awareness programmes on mammal
conservation that have taken place in the country, especially in recent years,
there is still an urgent need for the continuation of such programmes with
innovative ideas to put across the conservation message and more widely
throughout Nepal.
Mammal research
and conservation are heavily biased in Nepal because overseas conservation
agencies, which have very largely funded this work, are interested mainly in
the globally prioritised large charismatic fauna while species that are only
nationally threatened or data deficient have been very largely unstudied.
The main threats to NepalŐs threatened mammal species are summarised in
Appendices 3 and 4.
CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS
Minimizing habitat losses, degradation and
fragmentation
There is enormous
potential for improved management of existing low density and depleted
forests. The 2014–2020
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan includes a target of a significant reduction (by at least 75% of
the current rate) in the loss and degradation of forest. Another valuable
target is the promotion of alternative energy sources (such as biogas, solar
energy, and hydropower) and fuel-efficient technologies (such as
bio-briquettes, improved stoves) to reduce demand of firewood (MoFSC 2014). Other important targets include the
development and implementation of plans to reduce occurrence of forest fires
and overgrazing; reclaiming at least 10,000ha of encroached forestland through
effective implementation of the Forest Encroachment Control Strategy (2012) and
the establishment of protected forests where necessary and feasible (MoFSC
2014). The provision of more resources to park and forestry field
staff should help improve their monitoring of forest exploitation.
Degraded forests
with on-going people pressure can be handed over to the community for
management through the District Forest Office. Under community management, protection
of most forest areas has been extremely successful and regeneration of lost
cover has been phenomenal. Communities
throughout Nepal have demonstrated that they can effectively protect and
sustainably use the forests under their care. The community forestry programs should
therefore be extended and strengthened, giving priority to biodiversity
conservation in addition to the forest products (MoFSC 2014). Another target is to promote mixed
forests of native plant species in community managed forests (MoFSC 2014).
Regulating NTFP
and MAP harvesting with effective management plans would reduce pressure on
forests, which annually results from the influx of huge numbers of people to
harvest these products. This will
also reduce disturbance to mammals and other wildlife (MoFSC 2014).
The effective
implementation of NepalŐs National Wetland Policy is urgently needed. This policy aims to put people at the
center of conservation and natural resource management. While all communities
benefit from wetlands, about 17% of the populations from 21 ethnic communities
have traditionally based their livelihoods on wetlands. These are some of the most marginalised
and poorest people in Nepal. The
conservation and restoration of wetlands will benefit many wildlife species which directly or indirectly depend on these
wetlands.
The participation
by user groups and community-based organizations in collaborative management of
wetland resources, as advocated in NepalŐs Wetland Policy, will be key to
achieving sustainable resource use.
These measures should help to prevent over-exploitation including
over-fishing, the use of poisons to kill fish, over-grazing and excessive grass
cutting along watercourses.
Regulating sand
and gravel mining of rivers is urgently needed. MoFSC (2014) includes a target for the development
and implementation, by 2015, of an effective mechanism to control mining of
gravel and sand from rivers and streams.
Areas suitable for sand mining and quarrying should be identified and
designated and mining banned in the conservation areas.
Reducing
pollution of wetlands is very important, especially in the rivers of Chitwan
National Park, which are particularly affected. Enforcement of the Industrial Policy
(2011) should help reduce water pollution.
MoFSC (2014) states that plans should be developed and implemented to
control industrial pollution in five major rivers and five major wetlands, by
2020. MoFSC (2014) also includes a target to control
encroachment and eutrophication in at least ten major wetlands and restore at
least five major degraded wetlands by 2020.
Strict
enforcement of NepalŐs already existing pesticide regulations would greatly
reduce the threat from pesticides to people, wildlife and the environment. The
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach was emphasized in NepalŐs National
Agricultural Perspective Plan to try and reduce pesticide use. An increase in training of IPM use is
badly needed. The use of effective
microorganisms (EM) technology should be encouraged by running training camps
for farmers in the buffer zones of lowland protected areas. Using EM technology, a combination of
various beneficial organisms is formed, that is helpful for plant growth,
acting as a fertiliser. The combination of organisms can also act as a
bio-pesticide.
Effective
grassland management is vital for biodiversity conservation; grassland small
mammals are often highly sensitive to changes in habitat quality and the
microenvironment around them (Adhikari 1999). People are allowed into Terai protected
areas for three to ten days annually to cut grass, at which time the grasslands
are also burned; in the case of Chitwan this involves an influx of many
thousands of people (Peet et al. 1999).
Management should therefore aim to maintain areas of intact grassland
that are not cut or burnt, on a rotational basis, whilst allowing other areas
to be harvested by local people (Peet 1997; Peet et al. 1999). Burning by
management should also be carried out during the early part of the dry season
to minimize loss of breeding animals (Peet et al. 1999). Saplings of various trees and bushes
should be removed periodically from grasslands to prevent succession to
shrubland and eventually forest.
Ploughing has been found to be counterproductive and should be avoided
(Peet 1997; Baral 2001). In
addition to better management of existing grasslands, the expansion and
conservation of new grassland areas are recommended (Baral 2001; Jnawali et al.
2011) and degraded grasslands should be restored. Livestock grazing should be stopped in
protected areas by improving law enforcement. Livestock management practices should be
improved, for example by including stall feeding. Grazing pastures outside protected areas
should be identified, promoted and managed.
More
community-managed grasslands should be set up in lowland Nepal (Jnawali et al.
2011). This is already happening in Chitwan National Park buffer zone in
Nawalparasi District, where a community-managed grassland is working along
similar lines to that of community forestry and fulfills the needs of local
village people for cattle fodder and thatch grasses (Dhan Bahadur Chaudhary pers.
comm.).
Corridors to
connect fragmented habitats such as isolated grasslands and forest patches
should be restored, and land use planning and policies should be improved to
ensure these areas are conserved.
Urgent action is
needed to control the spread of invasive alien plant species such as Mikania micrantha. MoFSC (2014) includes a target for nation-wide
survey and research on the control of at least five most problematic invasive
alien plant species by 2020, although no specific species have been
suggested. The development and implementation of a national invasive plant species
control plan should be a priority.
Environmental
Impact Assessments should be ensured with compulsory input from biodiversity experts
on development projects, including hydropower dams and infrastructure such as
road construction, power lines and bridges. The long term
impacts of large scale development projects, such as hydropower dams and the
proposed east-west railway network and postal road, on mammals and other
wildlife need to be studied. Some of these projects would be highly detrimental
to wildlife. Therefore, before
embarking on any large infrastructure projects, consultation should be made
with biodiversity experts.
Reducing
poaching and persecution
Integrated law
enforcement efforts by the security forces, park authorities, conservation
partners, and local communities have been very effective in Nepal to control
poaching and illegal wildlife trade (Lamichhane et al. 2017). Such efforts should be further
strengthened and scaled up outside protected areas.
More conservation
awareness programs should be launched, especially in buffer zones of protected
areas. Conservation awareness activities should be targeted at schools,
colleges, community groups, farmers, protected area army staff, religious and
political leaders using electronic and print media, radio and TV programs,
social media, street dramas, talks and presentations, wildlife fair /
festivals, media campaigns, celebrities, sports icons and documentaries. It is important that conservation
messages are relevant and effective. Nature clubs should be established in
schools and within communities and wildlife watching activities carried out
regularly for school children. Awards and recognition of local achievements
should be established. A National Mammal Day could be introduced; each district
could adopt its own mammal species to celebrate.
Resolving
human-wildlife conflict
Much of the attempts to resolve conflicts have focussed around protected
areas. Some of the more successful strategies include the deployment of
electric fences, building predator-proof corrals, construction of trenches and
planting of crops that are unpalatable to wildlife. At the national level,
however, there is minimal infrastructure and support to address some of these
issues. For example, common Leopard attacks on livestock and sometimes humans is
widespread across the mid-hill region of Nepal, but district forest offices
have no institutional capacity to respond (e.g., capturing leopards, engaging
in conservation planning and monitoring animals). The same is true for dealing with
conflicts with elephants in lowland Nepal.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to build the institutional capacity
to address conflicts as part of the framework of overall conservation planning
(Acharya et al. 2016).
Improvements
in mammal conservation measures and in mammal research
Conservation projects
should support livelihood of local communities to ensure their active
participation. More conservation engagement programs are urgently needed.
Capacity building of local communities including wildlife monitoring is
important. The programs should also
aim to improve understanding of the global and national importance of NepalŐs
conservation areas amongst government and civil society.
Conservation
strategies for threatened groups of mammal species (besides flagship species)
based on appropriate baseline data should be developed and implemented. Key research projects need to be
identified, especially on nationally threatened species and data deficient
species. Collaboration between
universities and NGOs needs to be developed. An annual funding program should be
established with a committee set up to review proposals and monitor research
projects, also enabling development of wildlife research capacity.
Protected areasŐ
staff and the Nepal Army working in the protected areas should be trained in the
various aspects of wildlife conservation.
Protected areasŐ staff should also be provided with adequate resources
including field equipment such as binoculars and field guides and training so
they can carry out periodic wildlife monitoring in the protected areas.
The Government
should establish strong networking between national and local NGOs and
agencies; annual national meetings should be held with representatives from
relevant organizations ensuring implementation and enforcement of existing laws
for the protection of wildlife.
Re-assessments of
the status of certain mammal groups, for example lowland grassland mammals
using camera-trap survey data, carried out every five years would be useful. An
online species database and mapping system would also greatly help in land-use
planning and policies.
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Appendix
1. National and global status of NepalŐs mammals [Regionally
Extirpated (RE), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Near
Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD)].
|
|
Scientific
Name |
Common
Name |
National
Status |
Global
status |
|
|
Order: CARNIVORA |
|||
|
1 |
Ailurus fulgens |
Red Panda |
EN |
EN |
|
2 |
Aonyx cinerea |
Asian Small-clawed Otter |
DD |
VU |
|
3 |
Arctictis binturong |
Binturong |
DD |
VU |
|
4 |
Arctonyx collaris |
Hog Badger |
DD |
VU |
|
5 |
Canis aureus |
Golden Jackal |
LC |
LC |
|
6 |
Canis lupus |
Grey Wolf |
CR |
LC |
|
7 |
Cuon alpinus |
Dhole |
EN |
EN |
|
8 |
Felis chaus |
Jungle Cat |
LC |
LC |
|
9 |
Herpestes edwardsii |
Indian Grey Mongoose |
LC |
LC |
|
10 |
Herpestes javanicus |
Small Asian Mongoose |
LC |
LC |
|
11 |
Herpestes Smithii |
Ruddy Mongoose |
DD |
LC |
|
12 |
Herpestes urva |
Crab-eating Mongoose |
VU |
LC |
|
13 |
Hyaena hyaena |
Striped Hyaena |
EN |
NT |
|
14 |
Lutra lutra |
Eurasian Otter |
NT |
NT |
|
15 |
Lutrogale
perspicillata |
Smooth-coated Otter |
EN |
VU |
|
16 |
Lynx lynx |
Lynx |
VU |
VU |
|
17 |
Martes flavigula |
Yellow-throated Marten |
LC |
LC |
|
18 |
Martes foina |
Stone Marten/Beech Marten |
LC |
LC |
|
19 |
Mellivora capensis |
Honey Badger |
EN |
LC |
|
20 |
Melogale personata |
Large-toothed Ferret Badger |
DD |
LC |
|
21 |
Melursus ursinus |
Sloth Bear |
EN |
VU |
|
22 |
Mustela altaica |
Altai Weasel |
DD |
NT |
|
23 |
Mustela erminea |
Ermine/Stoat |
DD |
LC |
|
24 |
Mustela eversmanii |
Steppe Pole-cat |
DD |
LC |
|
25 |
Mustela kathiah |
Yellow-bellied Weasel |
DD |
LC |
|
26 |
Mustela sibirica |
Siberian Weasel |
LC |
LC |
|
27 |
Mustela strigidorsa |
Stripe-backed Weasel |
DD |
LC |
|
28 |
Neofelis nebulosa |
Clouded Leopard |
EN |
VU |
|
29 |
Otocolobus manul |
Palla's cat |
DD |
NT |
|
30 |
Paguma larvata |
Masked Palm Civet |
LC |
LC |
|
31 |
Panthera pardus |
Common Leopard |
VU |
VU |
|
32 |
Panthera tigris |
Royal Bengal Tiger |
EN |
EN |
|
33 |
Panthera uncia |
Snow Leopard |
EN |
EN |
|
34 |
Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus |
Common Palm Civet |
LC |
LC |
|
35 |
Pardofelis marmorata |
Marbled Cat |
DD |
NT |
|
36 |
Pardofelis
temminckii |
Asiatic Golden Cat |
DD |
NT |
|
37 |
Prionailurus
bengalensis |
Leopard Cat |
VU |
LC |
|
38 |
Prionailurus
rubiginosus |
Rusty-spotted Cat |
DD |
NT |
|
39 |
Prionailurus
viverrinus |
Fishing Cat |
EN |
VU |
|
40 |
Prionodon pardicolor |
Spotted Linsang |
EN |
LC |
|
41 |
Ursus arctos |
Brown Bear |
CR |
LC |
|
42 |
Ursus thibetanus |
Himalayan Black Bear |
EN |
VU |
|
43 |
Viverra zibetha |
Large Indian Civet |
NT |
LC |
|
44 |
Viverricula indica |
Small Indian Civet |
LC |
LC |
|
45 |
Vulpes bengalensis |
Bengal Fox |
VU |
LC |
|
46 |
Vulpes ferrilata |
Tibetan Fox |
DD |
LC |
|
47 |
Vulpes vulpes |
Red Fox |
DD |
LC |
|
|
Order: CETARTIODACTYLA |
|||
|
48 |
Antilope cervicapra |
Blackbuck |
CR |
NT |
|
49 |
Axis axis |
Axis Deer |
VU |
LC |
|
50 |
Axis porcinus |
Hog Deer |
EN |
EN |
|
51 |
Bos gaurus |
Gaur |
VU |
VU |
|
52 |
Bos mutus |
Wild Yak |
DD |
VU |
|
53 |
Boselaphus
tragocamelus |
Nilgai |
VU |
LC |
|
54 |
Bubalus arnee |
Wild Water Buffalo |
EN |
EN |
|
55 |
Capricornis thar |
Himalayan Serow |
DD |
NT |
|
56 |
Hemitragus
jemlahicus |
Himalayan Tahr |
NT |
NT |
|
57 |
Moschiola indica |
Indian Chevrotain |
CR |
LC |
|
58 |
Moschus chrysogaster |
Alpine Musk Deer |
EN |
EN |
|
59 |
Moschus fuscus |
Black Musk Deer |
DD |
EN |
|
60 |
Moschus leucogaster |
Himalayan Musk Deer |
DD |
EN |
|
61 |
Muntiacus vaginalis |
Barking Deer |
VU |
LC |
|
62 |
Naemorhedus goral |
Himalayan Goral |
NT |
NT |
|
63 |
Ovis ammon |
Argali |
DD |
NT |
|
64 |
Pantholops hodgsonii |
Tibetan Antelope |
DD |
NT |
|
65 |
Platanista gangetica |
South Asian River Dolphin |
CR |
EN |
|
66 |
Porcula salvania |
Pygmy Hog |
RE |
CR |
|
67 |
Procapra
picticaudata |
Tibetan Gazelle |
CR |
NT |
|
68 |
Pseudois nayaur |
Blue Sheep |
LC |
LC |
|
69 |
Rucervus duvaucelii |
Swamp Deer |
EN |
VU |
|
70 |
Rusa unicolor |
Sambar |
VU |
VU |
|
71 |
Sus scrofa |
Wild Boar |
LC |
LC |
|
72 |
Tetracerus
quadricornis |
Four-horned Antelope |
DD |
VU |
|
|
Order: CHIROPTERA |
|||
|
73 |
Arielulus
circumdatus |
Bronze Sprite |
DD |
LC |
|
74 |
Barbastella
leucomelas |
Asian Barbastelle |
LC |
LC |
|
75 |
Cynopterus sphinx |
Greater Short-nosed Fruit
Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
76 |
Eonycteris spelaea |
Dawn Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
77 |
Eptesicus dimissus |
Surat Serotine |
DD |
DD |
|
78 |
Eptesicus serotinus |
Serotine |
DD |
LC |
|
79 |
Falsistrellus
affinis |
Chocolate Pipistrelle |
DD |
LC |
|
80 |
Hesperoptenus
tickelli |
Tickell's Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
81 |
Hipposideros armiger |
Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed
Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
82 |
Hipposideros
cineraceus |
Least Leaf-nosed Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
83 |
Hipposideros fulvus |
Fulvus Leaf-nosed Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
84 |
Hipposideros pomona |
Andersen's Leaf-nosed Bat |
NT |
LC |
|
85 |
Ia io |
Great Evening Bat |
CR |
LC |
|
86 |
Kerivoula hardwickii |
Hardwicke's Woolly Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
87 |
Kerivoula picta |
Painted Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
88 |
Megaderma lyra |
Greater False Vampire |
LC |
LC |
|
89 |
Miniopterus pusillus |
Small Long-fingered Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
90 |
Miniopterus
schreibersii |
Common Bentwing Bat |
LC |
NT |
|
91 |
Murina aurata |
Tibetan Tube-nosed Bat |
NT |
LC |
|
92 |
Murina cyclotis |
Round-eared Tube-nosed Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
93 |
Murina huttoni |
Hutton's Tube-nosed Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
94 |
Murina leucogaster |
Rufous Tube-nosed Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
95 |
Myotis blythii |
Lesser Mouse-eared Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
96 |
Myotis csorbai |
CsorbaŐs Mouse-eared Bat |
CR |
DD |
|
97 |
Myotis formosus |
Hodgson's Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
98 |
Myotis muricola |
Nepalese Whiskered Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
99 |
Myotis nipalensis |
Nepal Myotis |
LC |
LC |
|
100 |
Myotis sicarius |
Mandelli's Mouse-eared Bat |
VU |
VU |
|
101 |
Myotis siligorensis |
Himalayan Whiskered Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
102 |
Nyctalus montanus |
Mountain Noctule |
DD |
LC |
|
103 |
Nyctalus noctula |
Noctule |
DD |
LC |
|
104 |
Philetor
brachypterus |
Short-winged Pipistrelle |
VU |
LC |
|
105 |
Pipistrellus
coromandra |
Coromandel Pipistrelle |
LC |
LC |
|
106 |
Pipistrellus
javanicus |
Javan Pipistrelle |
LC |
LC |
|
107 |
Pipistrellus tenuis |
Least Pipistrelle |
LC |
LC |
|
108 |
Plecotus auritus |
Brown Big-eared Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
109 |
Plecotus austriacus |
Grey Long-eared Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
110 |
Pteropus giganteus |
Indian Flying Fox |
LC |
LC |
|
111 |
Rhinolophus affinis |
Intermediate Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
112 |
Rhinolophus
ferrumequinum |
Greater Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
113 |
Rhinolophus lepidus |
Blyth's Horseshoe Bat |
NT |
LC |
|
114 |
Rhinolophus luctus |
Woolly Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
115 |
Rhinolophus macrotis |
Big-eared Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
116 |
Rhinolophus
pearsonii |
Pearson's Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
117 |
Rhinolophus pusillus |
Least Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
118 |
Rhinolophus sinicus |
Chinese Horseshoe Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
119 |
Rhinolophus
subbadius |
Little Nepalese Horseshoe
Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
120 |
Rousettus
leschenaultii |
LeschenaultŐs Rousette |
LC |
LC |
|
121 |
Scotomanes ornatus |
Harlequin Bat |
EN |
LC |
|
122 |
Scotophilus heathii |
Greater Asiatic Yellow
House Bat |
LC |
LC |
|
123 |
Scotophilus kuhlii |
Lesser Asiatic Yellow House
Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
124 |
Sphaerias blanfordi |
Blandford's Fruit Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
125 |
Taphozous longimanus |
Longed-winged Tomb Bat |
DD |
LC |
|
|
Order: EULIPOTYPHLA |
|||
|
126 |
Chimarrogale
Himalayica |
Himalayan Water Shrew |
EN |
LC |
|
127 |
Crocidura attenuata |
Indochinese Shrew |
LC |
LC |
|
128 |
Crocidura
horsfieldii |
Horsefield's Shrew |
DD |
DD |
|
129 |
Crocidura pergrisea |
Pale Grey Shrew |
DD |
DD |
|
130 |
Episoriculus
caudatus |
Hodgson's Brown-toothed
Shrew |
LC |
LC |
|
131 |
Episoriculus leucops |
Long-tailed Brown-toothed
Shrew |
LC |
LC |
|
132 |
Episoriculus
macrurus |
Arboreal Brown-toothed
Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
133 |
Euroscaptor micrura |
Himalayan Mole |
DD |
LC |
|
134 |
Nectogale elegans |
Elegant Water Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
135 |
Sorex bedfordiae |
Lesser Stripe-backed Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
136 |
Sorex excelsus |
Highland Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
137 |
Sorex minutus |
Eurasian Pygmy Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
138 |
Soriculus nigrescens |
Sikkim Large-clawed Shrew |
LC |
LC |
|
139 |
Suncus etruscus |
Pygmy White-toothed Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
140 |
Suncus murinus |
House Shrew |
LC |
LC |
|
141 |
Suncus stoliczkanus |
Anderson's Shrew |
DD |
LC |
|
|
Order: LAGOMORPHA |
|||
|
142 |
Caprolagus hispidus |
Hispid Hare |
EN |
EN |
|
143 |
Lepus nigricollis |
Indian Hare |
LC |
LC |
|
144 |
Lepus oiostolus |
Woolly Hare |
LC |
LC |
|
145 |
Ochotona curzoniae |
Plateau Pika |
DD |
LC |
|
146 |
Ochotona Himalayana |
Himalayan Pika |
EN |
LC |
|
147 |
Ochotona lama |
Lama's Pika |
DD |
|
|
148 |
Ochotona macrotis |
Large-eared Pika |
DD |
LC |
|
149 |
Ochotona nubrica |
Nubra Pika |
DD |
LC |
|
150 |
Ochotona roylei |
Royle's Pika |
DD |
LC |
|
151 |
Ochotona thibetana |
Moupin Pika |
DD |
LC |
|
|
Order: PERISSODACTYLA |
|||
|
152 |
Equus kiang |
Kiang |
VU |
LC |
|
153 |
Rhinoceros unicornis |
Greater One-horned Rhinoceros |
EN |
VU |
|
|
Order: PHOLIDOTA |
|||
|
154 |
Manis crassicaudata |
Indian Pangolin |
EN |
EN |
|
155 |
Manis pentadactyla |
Chinese Pangolin |
EN |
CR |
|
|
Order: PRIMATES |
|||
|
156 |
Macaca assamensis |
Assam Macaque |
VU |
NT |
|
157 |
Macaca mulatta |
Rhesus Macaque |
LC |
LC |
|
158 |
Semnopithecus ajax |
Himalayan Grey Langur |
DD |
EN |
|
159 |
Semnopithecus hector |
Terai Grey Langur |
LC |
NT |
|
160 |
Semnopithecus
schistaceus |
Nepal Grey Langur |
LC |
LC |
|
|
Order: PROBOSCIDEA |
|||
|
161 |
Elephas Maximus |
Asian Elephant |
EN |
EN |
|
|
Order: RODENTIA |
|||
|
162 |
Alticola roylei |
Royle's Mountain Vole |
DD |
NT |
|
163 |
Alticola
stoliczkanus |
Stoliczka's Mountain Vole |
DD |
LC |
|
164 |
Apodemus Gurkha |
Himalayan Field Mouse |
EN |
LC |
|
165 |
Apodemus pallipes |
Ward's Field Mouse |
DD |
LC |
|
166 |
Apodemus sylvaticus |
Long-tailed Field Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
167 |
Bandicota
bengalensis |
Lesser Bandicoot Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
168 |
Bandicota indica |
Greater Bandicoot Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
169 |
Bandicota indica |
Giant Bandicoot-Rat |
DD |
LC |
|
170 |
Belomys pearsonii |
Hairy-footed Flying
Squirrel |
DD |
DD |
|
171 |
Callosciurus
pygerythrus |
Hoary-bellied Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
172 |
Cannomys badius |
Bay Bamboo Rat |
DD |
LC |
|
173 |
Cricetulus alticola |
Ladakh Hamster |
DD |
LC |
|
174 |
Dacnomys millardi |
Millard's Rat |
DD |
DD |
|
175 |
Diomys crumpi |
Crump's Mouse |
DD |
DD |
|
176 |
Dremomys lokriah |
Orange-bellied Himalayan
Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
177 |
Funambulus pennantii |
Five-striped Palm Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
178 |
Golunda ellioti |
Indian Bush Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
179 |
Hylopetes alboniger |
Particolored Flying
Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
180 |
Hystrix brachyura |
Himalayan Crestless
Porcupine |
DD |
LC |
|
181 |
Hystrix indica |
Indian Crested Porcupine |
DD |
LC |
|
182 |
Marmota bobak |
Bobak Marmot |
LC |
LC |
|
183 |
Marmota himalayana |
Himalayan Marmot |
LC |
LC |
|
184 |
Millardia meltada |
Soft-furred Metad |
LC |
LC |
|
185 |
Mus booduga |
Common Indian Field Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
186 |
Mus cervicolor |
Fawn-colored Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
187 |
Mus cookii |
Cook's Mouse |
DD |
LC |
|
188 |
Mus musculus |
House Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
189 |
Mus phillipsi |
WroughtonŐs Small Spiny
Mouse |
DD |
LC |
|
190 |
Mus platythrix |
Flat-haired Mouse |
DD |
LC |
|
191 |
Mus saxicola |
Brown Spiny Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
192 |
Mus terricolor |
Earth-colored Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
193 |
Neodon sikimensis |
Sikkim Vole |
DD |
LC |
|
194 |
Nesokia indica |
Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
195 |
Niviventer eha |
Little Himalayan Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
196 |
Niviventer
fulvescens |
Chestnut White-bellied Rat |
DD |
LC |
|
197 |
Niviventer
niviventer |
Himalayan White-bellied Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
198 |
Petaurista elegans |
Spotted Giant Flying
Squirrel |
DD |
LC |
|
199 |
Petaurista
magnificus |
Hodgson's Giant Flying
Squirrel |
DD |
LC |
|
200 |
Petaurista nobilis |
Bhutan Giant Flying
Squirrel |
DD |
NT |
|
201 |
Petaurista
petaurista |
Red Giant Flying Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
202 |
Phaiomys leucurus |
Blyth's Vole |
DD |
LC |
|
203 |
Rattus andamanensis |
Sikkim Rat |
DD |
LC |
|
204 |
Rattus nitidus |
Himalayan Field Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
205 |
Rattus norvegicus |
Brown Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
206 |
Rattus pyctoris |
Himalayan Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
207 |
Rattus rattus |
Black Rat |
LC |
LC |
|
208 |
Ratufa Bicolor |
Black Giant Squirrel |
EN |
NT |
|
209 |
Tamiops
macclellandii |
Himalayan Striped Squirrel |
LC |
LC |
|
210 |
Tatera indica |
Indian Gerbil |
LC |
LC |
|
211 |
Vandeleuria oleracea |
Asiatic Long-tailed
Climbing Mouse |
LC |
LC |
|
|
Order: SCANDENTIA |
|||
|
212 |
Tupaia belangeri |
Northern Tree Shrew |
DD |
LC |
Appendix 2. Summary of the main threats
to threatened mammal species of Nepal
|
|
Primary Threat |
|
|
Secondary Threat |
|
|
Tertiary Threat |
|
|
Potential / suspected Threat |
|
Specific key threats / drivers of species declines |
|
|
Illegal hunting |
|
|
1 |
Poaching for oil used as fish bait |
|
2 |
Commercial poaching for use of animals/animal parts in trade or for
medicinal purposes |
|
3 |
Subsistence poaching |
|
Human Wildlife conflict |
|
|
4 |
Crop raiding |
|
5 |
Property damage |
|
6 |
Human injury |
|
7 |
Livestock depredation |
|
8 |
Retaliatory killing |
|
9 |
Persecution |
|
Habitat loss, degradation and alteration |
|
|
10 |
Invasive plant species |
|
11 |
Vegetation succession
leading to scrub encroachment |
|
12 |
Indiscriminate burning of grasslands |
|
13 |
Fragmentation (human encroachment, clearance for agriculture,
urbanization) |
|
14 |
Disturbance (roosting sites) |
|
15 |
Water pollution (industrial, agricultural and domestic) |
|
16 |
Barriers (dams, fences) |
|
17 |
Water development projects |
|
18 |
Sand and gravel mining of
river beds and other surface quarrying |
|
19 |
Degradation of forests (fuel and fodder collection, logging, selective timber
felling, burning, overgrazing) |
|
20 |
Degradation of grasslands and pastures (livestock over-grazing, inappropriate
grassland management in protected areas,
vegetation succession leading to scrub encroachment) |
|
Disease |
|
|
21 |
Tuberculosis |
|
22 |
Rabies |
|
23 |
Foot-and-mouth |
|
24 |
White nose or Mange |
|
Resource depletion |
|
|
25 |
Depletion of natural prey base (due to over-fishing, hunting etc.) |
|
Genetic loss |
|
|
26 |
Inbreeding depression (small isolated populations) |
|
27 |
Hybridization |
|
Other |
|
|
28 |
Flooding, landslides etc. |
|
29 |
Predation (feral dogs) |
|
30 |
Entanglement in fishing gear such as gill nets |
|
Category of threat |
Species |
Illegal hunting |
Human wildlife conflict |
Habitat loss, degradation and alteration |
Disease |
Resource depletion |
Genetic loss |
Other |
|
CR |
Antilope cervicapra, Blackbuck |
2,3 |
4,8 |
20 |
23 |
|
26 |
29 |
|
Canis lupus,
Grey Wolf |
2 |
7,8,9 |
13 |
22 |
25 |
|
|
|
|
la io, Great Evening Bat |
3 |
|
13,14,19 |
24 |
|
|
|
|
|
Moschiola indica, Indian
Chevrotain |
3 |
|
10,12,13,20 |
23 |
|
26 |
|
|
|
Myotis csorbai, CsorbaŐs
Mouse-eared Myotis |
3 |
|
13,19 |
24 |
|
|
|
|
|
Platanista gangetica, Ganges River Dolphin |
1 |
|
15,16, 17,18 |
|
25 |
26 |
30 |
|
|
Procapra picticaudata, Tibetan
Gazelle |
2,3 |
|
16,20 |
|
|
26 |
29 |
|
|
Ursus arctos,
Brown Bear |
2 |
4,7,8,9 |
13 |
|
25 |
26 |
|
|
|
|
Bos mutus, Wild
Yak |
3 |
|
13 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
EN |
Ailurus fulgens,
Red Panda |
2 |
|
13,19 |
|
|
26 |
29 |
|
Apodemus gurkha,
Himalayan Field Mouse |
|
9 |
13,20 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Axis porcinus, Hog
Deer |
3 |
|
10,11 |
|
|
|
28 |
|
|
Bubalus arnee, Wild
Water Buffalo |
3 |
4,8 |
10,11,20 |
23 |
|
26,27 |
28 |
|
|
Caprolagus hispidus,
Hispid Hare |
|
|
11,12,13,20 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Chimarrogale himalayica,
Himalayan Water Shrew |
|
9 |
13,15 |
|
|
|
28 |
|
|
Cuon alpinus, Dhole |
|
7,8,9 |
13 |
22 |
25 |
|
|
|
|
Elephas maximus, Asian
Elephant |
|
4,5,6,8 |
13,19 |
21 |
|
|
|
|
|
Hyaena hyaena,
Striped Hyeana |
|
7,8,9 |
13,19,20 |
|
25 |
|
|
|
|
Lutrogale perspicillata,
Smooth-coated Otter |
2 |
9 |
13,15,16,17 |
|
25 |
|
30 |
|
|
Manis crassicaudata,
Indian Pangolin |
2,3 |
9 |
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Manis pentadactyla, Chinese
Pangolin |
2,3 |
9 |
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mellivora capensis,
Honey Badger |
|
9 |
13 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Melursus ursinus,
Sloth Bear |
2 |
4,8,9 |
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Moschus chrysogaster,
Alpine Musk Deer |
2 |
|
13,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Neofelis nebulosa,
Clouded Leopard |
2 |
7,8 |
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ochotona himalayana,
Himalayan Pika |
|
9 |
20 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Panthera tigris tigris,
Bengal Tiger |
2 |
6,7,8 |
13,19,20 |
|
25 |
|
|
|
|
Panthera uncia,
Snow Leopard |
2 |
7,8 |
13,19,20 |
|
25 |
|
|
|
|
Prionodon pardicolor,
Spotted Linsang |
2 |
|
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Prionailurus viverrinus,
Fishing Cat |
2 |
|
15,17,19 |
|
25 |
|
|
|
|
Ratufa bicolor,
Black Giant Squirrel |
2,3 |
9 |
19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rhinoceros unicornis, Greater
One-horned Rhino |
2 |
4,5,6,8 |
10,11,12,13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rucervus duvaucelii, Swamp
Deer |
3 |
|
13,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Scotomanes ornatus, Harlequin
Bat |
3 |
|
13,20 |
24 |
|
|
|
|
|
Ursus thibetanus,
Himalayan Black Bear |
2 |
4,6,7,8 |
13,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
VU |
Axis axis,
Chital |
3 |
|
10,13,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
Boselaphus tragocamelus, Nilgai |
3 |
4,8 |
13,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Bos gaurus, Gaur |
3 |
|
11,13,19,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Equus kiang, Kiang |
|
|
20 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Herpestes urva, Crab-eating
Mongoose |
2 |
|
13,15,17,19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lynx lynx, Lynx |
2 |
7,8,9 |
13,20 |
22 |
|
|
|
|
|
Muntiacus vaginalis, Barking
Deer |
3 |
|
10,13,19,20 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Myotis sicarius,
Mandelli's Mouse-eared Myotis |
3 |
|
13,14,19 |
24 |
|
|
|
|
|
Panthera pardus, Leopard |
2 |
6,7,8,9 |
13 |
|
25 |
|
|
|
|
Philetor brachypterus, Short-winged
Pipistrelle |
3 |
|
13,14,19 |
24 |
|
|
|
|
|
Prionailurus bengalensis, Leopard Cat |
3 |
7,8,9 |
13 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rusa unicolor, Sambar |
3 |
|
10,13,19 |
23 |
|
|
|
|
|
Vulpes bengalensis,
Bengal Fox |
2 |
7,8,9,11 |
13 |
|
|
|
|
