Journal of
Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 October 2018 | 10(11):
12571–12576
Crocodiles of river Krishna: impact on agriculture, economy, and the
sociology of human population in Sangli, Maharashtra,
India
Rajaram Hindurao Atigre
Department of Zoology, Shri
Vijaysinha Yadav Arts and
Science College (Affiliated to Shivaji University), Peth Vadgaon, Kolhapur,
Maharashtra 416112, India
rajan6340@rediffmail.com
Abstract: Krishna is one of the main rivers of the
Deccan Plateau. It begins its course in the Western Ghats. A large human
population relies on the river Krishna for agricultural irrigation, watering
livestock (cattle), fishing and other activities. The presence of and attacks
by the Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris on humans and livestock are reported in the
Krishna resulted in the formulation of the present research. Data collection
comprised on-site observations and field interviews using a structured questionnaire.
Attacks were found to occur mostly during winter and summer seasons. During
winter, crocodiles bask in the sunlight on river banks
and attack in self-defense. The summer season
corresponds with their breeding period and attacks occur as the crocodiles
protect their nests.
Keywords: Crocodylus
palustris, human-animal interaction,
human-crocodile conflict, impact, Mugger Crocodile.
doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3501.10.11.12571-12576
Editor: Nikhil Whitaker, Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Mamallapuram, India. Date
of publication: 26 October 2018 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms # 3501 |
Received 18 May 2017 | Final received 06 September 2018 | Finally accepted 10
September 2018
Citation: Atigre, R.H. (2018). Crocodiles
of river Krishna: impact on agriculture, economy, and the sociology of human
population in Sangli, Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened
Taxa 10(11): 12571–12576; https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3501.10.10.12571-12576
Copyright: © Atigre 2018. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and distribution
by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The author declares no competing interests.
Acknowledgements: The author is thankful to UGC, WRO, Pune, Shivaji University, Kolhapur and Shri
Vijaysinha Yadav Arts and
Science College, Peth Vadgaon
for providing an opportunity to carry out the present work. The author would
also like to put on record the help and cooperation rendered by the respondents
of the study area and accompanying persons during the survey and data
collection.
The Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris has inhabited the Krishna River in Sangli District of Maharashtra for a long period (Whitaker
& Andrews 2003). Its population size has not been determined
as no population survey has been carried out. In general, C. palustris is shy, but can become aggressive if
disturbed in its natural habitat. The crocodile is a long-lived animal, late
maturing with complex social hierarchy, easily unapproachable, and studies
needs to be carried out over a long period of time and with considerable effort
(Chihona2014).The preferred habitat is typically
difficult to access. Human beings or livestock are not natural preys of
crocodile but they are misidentified as they go down to the water and may
appear to the crocodile as a natural prey item. The crocodiles may attack them
as defense when human beings or livestock present a
threat to the crocodile or its nest.
Extensive water extraction for consumption, irrigation and industrial
use, coupled with a decrease in fish stocks in the wild has contributed to
habitat loss for crocodiles throughout the world (Botha et al. 2011).
Similarly, extensive fishing by fishermen has also affected the crocodiles’
feeding habit with the result that the risk of competition for food (livestock
and humans) has increased. The crocodiles of Krishna River are also affected by
similar factors. Most crocodilians which occur near human
population are potential predators of humans and livestock. The recovery
of the wild population of crocodiles (Stuart Chihona,
2014) often increases at a large extent, as it increases the human,
livestock-crocodile competition.
Fishermen and livestock farmers are the most likely victims and hence
they are likely to want to reduce crocodile numbers and kill crocodiles (Barnes
1996) or damage their nests and/or eggs in an attempt to reduce their numbers
(Shacks 2006). Crocodile attacks can
also be correlated with the number of crocodiles and condition or state of the
habitat. Those rivers with slow flowing water and a flat substrate show
presence of a large number of crocodiles (Atigre et
al.2015) where the livestock get into the water and the crocodile attack can
result. Competition for resources has been a matter of concern for most
carnivores, with humans as well as crocodiles, as it affects distribution and
behaviour of wildlife (Ehrlich 2009; Vanak & Gompper 2009; Combrinket al.
2011), due to either disturbance or shortage of resources. The shortage of
resources coupled with the overpopulation of crocodiles has resulted in the
migration of crocodiles from river Krishna to its tributaries, Warana and Kadavi (Patil et al. 2012).
All the above-mentioned potential threats to the crocodile population in
the Krishna led to crocodile attacks on human in the last 12 to 15 years.
According to the records of the sub-divisional forest office in Sangli, Maharashtra the first known crocodile attack on
human occurred in April 2003. Many such attacks on humans and livestock are
reported from the selected study area. The present research was initiated to
study the impact of crocodiles on agriculture, economy and the sociology of
local people in Sangli, Maharashtra.
The main focus of the research was to identify the levels of
human-crocodile interactions, i.e., property damage (like crop fields),
predation of livestock and attacks on humans. As the study area is densely
populated with a heavy agricultural load of sugarcane plantations, the farming
community frequently visits the river belt for agricultural purposes.
Similarly, there is a large number of cattle domestication in the region. Thus,
it is interesting to know how farmers manage the agriculture system and
livestock management methods with crocodiles in close vicinity.
Materials and Methods
To identify the impact of crocodiles on agriculture, economy and
sociology of human population from Sangli,
Maharashtra, the study area was frequently visited
from January to May of both years in 2016 and 2017. During these visits,
farmers from various villages on the banks were interviewed to collect the
research information regarding problem.
Study Area
River Krishna is the third longest river in India, measuring about
1400km. It originates at Mahabaleshwar (17.920 N
& 73.650 E) in the extreme north of Wai
Tahsil, Satara District, Maharashtra and meets the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi (15.950 N & 80.980 E)
in Andhra Pradesh. The selected segment of study starts at Junekhed
(17.070 N & 74.350 E) in Walwa
Tahsil of Sangli District
and ends at the Krishna-Warana confluence (16.830
N & 74.530 E) at Haripur near
the city of Sangli.
This river segment is about 50km long (Fig. 1). The villages on the left
bank are Punadi, Nagrale, Shirgaon, Burli, Aamanapur, Anugadewadi, Dhangaon, Audumbar, Bhilawadi, Chopadewadi, Sukhwadi, Bramhnal, Mouje Digraj, Padmale,
Sangli (Ganpati Mandir, Gaonbhag, Haripur Road) and Haripur.
Villages on the right bank are Junekhed, Navekhed, Walwa, Nagthane, Suryagaon, Santgaon, Shantinagar, Ankalkhop, Mardwadi, Karandwadi, Tung, Kasabe Digraj and Sangliwadi. According
to 2011 census, the human population of Sangli
District was 2,822,143 with density of 329 per km2 (Directorate of
Census Operations, Maharashtra, 2011).
The villages Walwa and Bhilawadi
are in developing stage with industrialization and there is
less interactions while Sangli City is a District
place with 447,774 populations and there is no interactions. The populations of
all other villages of study area are dependent on agriculture or livestock and
are affected by crocodiles.
Interviews and
personal observations
The methodology used included interviews of the people native to the
study area together with personal observations made during the visits. Moore
(1953), Charnock-Wilson (1970), Abercrombie (1978),
and Whitaker (1978) have used this method for crocodile survey to obtain more
information or to augment more detailed studies (Parker & Watson 1970)
about the problem.
Frequents visits in the study area were carried out during late winter
and summer seasons from January to May to identify the impact of the crocodile
population on agriculture, economy and the sociology of human population. This
is the breeding period of C. palustris. The
crocodile lays eggs in the month of March in nest holes, which hatch in the
last week of May. Farmers, women, cattle herders and wash girls who visit the river bank in the study area regularly were interviewed with
the help of a questionnaire. Farmers’ were asked about interference of
crocodiles in their routine works of farming and cattle domestication. A total
of 212 questionnaires from the people of the age group 15 to 70 years were
collected and analyzed. Independent and random
sampling methods were used for the selection of farmers from every village. The
village guard (Kotwal), village revenue officer (Talathi), and the village headman (Sarpanch)
were included in the surveys due to their responsibility in dealing with
human-crocodile interactions in the study area.
Observations and Results
Crocodile sightings
During most of the surveys crocodiles were observed basking on the river banks in the study area. A population count was not
done. Respondents who were daily visitors to the river reported the presence of
crocodiles in Krishna and this was supported by researcher observation;
photographs of basking crocodiles were taken during study visits (Images 1
& 2). Respondents reported that crocodiles could be observed about 50mfrom
either river banks, more frequently observed basking on the grass, soil or few
rocky surfaces. They also reported that more number of crocodiles are observed in recent 5–6 years than past and the size of
crocodiles is also bigger.
Crocodile attacks on
livestock and humans
Table 1 demonstrates that there were more crocodile attacks on livestock
than on humans mainly in the summer months. Respondents reported that livestock
(buffalo, cow, sheep and goat) are driven to the water to drink and most of the
drinking sites are covered with a thick canopy. The density of the vegetation
was directly proportional to the attacks on livestock, with few attacks noted
in open spaces. The respondents, particularly the village guards noted that out
of all these attacks on cattle very few were fatal; cattle were strong and
large enough to escape from the crocodile jaws. There were more attacks on the
cattle in the evening (82%), rather than during the morning (18%) (Table 3). The cattle herders needed to remain vigilant
during this process, with some reporting that they held the tails of the
animals to pull them away from possible attacks. Before the animals drank
water, the cattle herders threw stones to chase the crocodiles away from the
banks. Cattle were mostly attacked as they entered the river for drinking and
therefore became an easy target for the crocodiles.
Sixteen (16) attacks on human were recorded in the study area from April
2003 to March 2017, of which six were female and 10were male. Out of these 16
incidents, six (37.5%) caused death while 4 (25%) were severe and the remaining
six (37.5%) were not severe (Table 2). Though the humans of all age groups were
attacked, the humans above 60 years of age were severely harmed. Interestingly,
in all of the crocodile attacks the victims’ bodies (both humans and cattle)
were recovered with no missing organs or body parts. This clearly indicated
that the crocodiles had not attacked the humans or the livestock for food.
Damage to crop plants
The soil surface on both the banks of the river is covered with
sugarcane plantation (70%) along with some seasonal crops (30%) such as
groundnut, wheat, jowar and maize (Table 3). The
basking period of C. palustris is during the
winter when the farmers grow short-lived (three months) seasonal crops. The crocodiles
come out of the water for basking and move to the nearby cropland. The majority
of the respondents (87%) reported that crocodiles damaged the small or newly
germinated crops (about 10% of crops in the 50m area) (Table3).
Discussion and Conclusions
There has been a remarkable increase in human-wildlife conflict
worldwide (Woodroffe et al. 2007). The increase is
linked to the risk factors associated with predator attacks on humans and
livestock that range from fatal injuries to death (Ogada
et al.2003). Positive solutions for
these negative interactions need a deep understanding of the local situation,
anthropogenic factors and ecological aspects of the area. This will reduce
negative attitudes towards the predators, and will serve to further maintain
viable populations of predators, even creating good breeding sites for them to
boost other areas (Chihona 2014). This will increase
the chances for a predator such as Crocodylus
palustris to retain its status in natural waters.
Villages close to the river are mainly affected by crocodile attacks.
Livestock are mainly attacked when they enter the river for water as well as
when they graze on river banks during the summer
months. This can be correlated with the breeding season of the crocodiles in
India. Mating occurs in late February or early March and the females lay eggs which are incubated in nest holes near the water edge
for 80 to 90 days. Hatching occurs usually in late May (Patil
& Atigre 2016) and the female carries her hatchlings
in her mouth to the water (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XH3xQQ9_ZmI).
The most interaction have occurred in the summer
months which is the breeding season of C. palustris
and they are protecting their nests.
The data showed that more than 60% of cases of attacks on humans
resulted in severe injury or death since 2003.
The social impacts on victims’ families vary depending on the victim’s
familial responsibilities. For example, the loss of a parent, a breadwinner,
means that the children drop out of schools, be forced
to engage in activities like cattle herding for boys and house hold chores for
girls. Furthermore, girls would be forced into premature marriages as they try
to alleviate poverty in their homes. In the case of severe injuries in crocodile
attacks, maximum income of the family is used for treatment and reduced
workforce for agricultural activities.
This study did not measure the effects of crop raiding. All seasonal
plants are sowed in the winter along with new sugarcane plantation, when
crocodiles are seen basking on the banks. Crocodiles move out of water on to
the land in the morning causing damage to the young crops resulting in economic
losses to the farmers.
Although crocodiles have become a threat to the agricultural, economic and
social scenario of the region, there were no reports or observations that they
are harmed or attacked.
Table 1. Summary of the Mugger Crocodile
survey and observations
Crocodile Survey |
Observations |
||||
Length of river surveyed |
No. of villages
visited |
No. of
respondents |
River water used for |
Reported crocodile attacks (April 2003
to March 2017) |
Impact of crocodile attacks |
50km |
16 |
212 |
. Irrigation to crop plants . Watering and washing cattle . Washing clothes . By women . Bathing |
. 16 on humans . 62 on cattle |
. Loss of human life . Loss of cattle life . Loss of wealth for treatment . Damage to crops . Decrease in crop yield |
Table 2. List of crocodile attacks on
human
|
Date of interaction |
Place of interaction |
Name of person |
Gender |
Remark |
1 |
29.iv.2003 |
Kadam vasti Kasbe Digraj |
Mr. Aniket Rajaram Kadam |
Male |
Dead |
2 |
11.ix.2003 |
Sakharwadi, Bhilawadi |
Mr. Ramchandra Bhiku Nalawade |
Male |
Dead |
3 |
19.vii.2005 |
Chopadewadi |
Mrs. Ratnaprabha Nayku Yadav |
Female |
Injured |
4 |
16.iii.2007 |
Ankalkhop |
Mr. Sunil Pandurang
Bhosale |
Male |
Dead |
5 |
28.vi.2008 |
Bhilwadi |
Mr. Tanaji Keru Kamble |
Male |
Injured |
6 |
28.viii.2008 |
Dhangaon |
Mrs. Sunita Balaso Mohite |
Female |
Injured |
7 |
17.x.2008 |
Bhilawadi |
Mr. Ramchandra
Nana Kamble |
Male |
Severely injured |
8 |
13.ix.2009 |
Dhangaon |
Mr. Mahadev Keshav Yadav |
Male |
Injured |
9 |
13.xi.2010 |
Bramhnal |
Mrs. Varsha Vinod Kamble |
Female |
Dead |
10 |
02.vi.2011 |
Walawa |
Mrs. Kalpana Babaso Khandekar |
Female |
Severely injured |
11 |
11.iv.2011 |
Ankalkhop |
Mr. Tushar Balaso Magadum |
Male |
Dead |
12 |
17.ix.2013 |
Aamanapur |
Mr. Shankar Bhau Pawar |
Male |
Injured |
13 |
14.iv.2014 |
Bramhnal |
Mrs. Sakhubai Dilip Kamble |
Female |
Severely injured |
14 |
12.iii.2015 |
Bhilawadi |
Mrs. Sushama Dadu Changdeo |
Female |
Dead |
15 |
25.v.2015 |
Kasabe Digraj |
Mr. Shivaji Nana Chougale |
Male |
Injured |
16 |
05.iii.2017 |
Haripur |
Mr. Keshav Damu Patil |
Male |
Severely injured |
Table 3. Summary of observations
|
Description |
Observation |
1 |
Time of the day when the cattles are driven to the river for water |
82% in the evening 18% in the morning |
2 |
Crop plantation in the study area |
70% area covered with sugarcane 30% area with seasonal crops |
3 |
Damage to crops by crocodile movements |
10%of crops were damaged |
4 |
Crocodile attacks on humans |
37.5% (6) attacks caused death 25% (4) were severe 37.5% (6) were not severe |
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Appendix
1. Questionnaire
Respondents’ information
Place:
Date:
Latitude
Longitude:
Name of person:
Address:
Age:
Education: Occupation:
Since when, you are staying nearby the
habitat of crocodile?
Questions:
1. Have you seen any crocodile/s?
2. How many times?
3. How long are you watching a crocodile/s?
4. How many crocodile/s at a time you have
seen?
5. What is the length of crocodile/s?
6. Have you seen eggs of crocodile/s? How
many?
7. Have you seen young ones of crocodile/s?
How many?
8. Have you seen a crocodile with young ones?
9. Have you heard the sounds of crocodile/s or
its young ones?
10. Have you seen nest of crocodile/s?
11. How many crocodile/s live in one nest?
12. Do you know any crocodile -human conflict or
attack on any other animal?
13. When? How many times?
14. Is anybody injured or died in crocodile/s
attack?
15. Does Crocodile damage the crop plants?
16. If yes, How and When?
17. Give the quantitative data.
18. Have you heard about crocodile/s protection
and conservation?
19. Is there a need of crocodile/s protection and
conservation?
20. How to protect and conserve crocodile/s?
21. Have you any memorable event regarding
crocodile/s?
22. Will you accept a crocodile park in your
area?