The Lion-tailed Macaque Macaca silenus (Primates: Cercopithecidae):
conservation history and status of a flagship species of the tropical
rainforests of the Western Ghats, India
Mewa Singh 1,
Werner Kaumanns 2, MridulaSingh 3, H.S. Sushma 4 & Sanjay Molur 5
1 Biopsychology Laboratory,
University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006, India
2
LTM-Research and Conservation, Eschenweg 5, 37130 Gleichen, Germany
3 Maharaja’s College,
University of Mysore, Mysuru, Karnataka 570005, India
4 c/o Karthik Vasudevan, Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun, Uttarakhand248001, India
5 Zoo Outreach
Organization, PB 1683, 9A, Lal BahadurColony, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641004,
India
Email: 1 mewasingh@bsnl.in
Date of publication 26
March 2009
ISSN 0974-7907 (online)
| 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Karin Schwartz
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2000
Received 05 June 2008
Finally accepted 15 Janurary 2009
Citation: Singh, M., W. Kaumanns, M. Singh, H.S. Sushma& S. Molur (2009). The Lion-tailed Macaque Macaca silenus(Primates: Cercopithecidae): conservation history and
status of a flagship species of the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats,
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 1(3): 151-157.
Copyright: © MewaSingh, Werner Kaumanns, MridulaSingh, H.S. Sushma & Sanjay Molur2009. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UnportedLicense. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: Mewa Singh has been working on primates
for three decades and has spent considerable time in the Annamalaisstudying LTMs. He is involved in primate behavior, and is currently studying
the status of mammals in Karnataka.
Werner
Kaumannshas worked on LTMs in captivity for over two and a half decades. He is also
interested in the management of LTMs in fragmented habitats.
Mridula
Singhworked on mode of parental investent patterns by the
female LTMs, and is also interested in the behavior of LTMs.
H.S.
Sushma did
her Ph.D. work on sympatric LTM, Nilgiri Langur, Giant Squirrel and Bonnet Macaque. She is
interested in the ecology and behavior of LTMs.
Sanjay
Molur has
been involved in conservation status assessments of fauna and flora in South
Asia for over 12 years and is currently working on the status of small mammals
of the Western Ghats.
Author Contributions: Mewa Singh and Werner Kaumannshave been working on the ex situ and in situ aspects of LTM conservation. Along
with Mridula Singh and Sushmathey developed the concept and worked on the initial draft of the manuscript,
which was further worked on by Sanjay Molur.
Abstract: The
Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) is a threatened species inhabiting the
rainforests of the Western Ghats mountain range in southern India. Once assessed to be less than a thousand
individuals remaining in the wild habitats, the population is now estimated to
be between 3000 and 3500 individuals. However, the rainforest habitats of the species are highly
fragmented. During the past three
decades or less, the population of this species has severely declined due to
habitat degradation and illegal hunting in several areas of its
occurrence. In situ conservation
programs included notification of certain areas as Lion-tailed Macaque
conservation regions. Several captive
breeding programs have been initiated in order to have a viable captive
population of the species. However, the
analysis reveals that both in situ and ex situ conservation
programs have not achieved the desired success and the species is even more
endangered than it was a few decades ago. In this article, we discuss these conservation programs and suggest further
measures for effective conservation of Lion-tailed Macaques.
Keywords: Lion-tailed Macaque, Western Ghats, conservation, captive
breeding, illegal hunting, adaptive management.
For
Table & Image – click here
The
Lion-tailed Macaque (LTM) (Macaca silenus) is endemic to the
tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats mountain range in the three southern
Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Kumar 1987). It belongs to the most primitive sylvanus-silenus of the macaque lineages (Thierry et
al. 2004). At present, the species
ranges over about 20,000 km2 but actually occupies an area less than 2,500 km2
(Molur et al. 2003). For its endemism, low reproductive turnover (Singh et al. 2006) and
small number in the wild habitats (Molur et al.
2003), the species has attracted special conservation concerns. It was classified as Schedule-I (highly protected)
species in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and as an Endangered
species by IUCN (IUCN 2007; Kumar et al. 2008). Since the Western Ghats are a home to a wide variety of flora and fauna
including many endemic species, the Lion-tailed Macaque is considered a
flagship species for the rainforests of the Ghats. For the past four decades, several measures
have been initiated for the conservation of the species. These include conservation and management
steps in the wild habitats of this species as well as captive breeding for
maintaining viable reserves. However, it
appears that most of these programs so far have not achieved the success that
was expected. At present, the species
appears to be in the same threatened condition, if not worse, as it was a few
decades ago. In this article, we discuss
the various in situ and ex situ conservation initiatives,
reassess the conservation status of the species, and outline an action plan on
the basis of lessons learnt from the past few decades.
Status
and conservation in natural habitats
Status
Table 1 summarizes, in a chronological order, the major field
studies on ecology, and behavior and population estimates of the Lion-tailed
Macaques in the Western Ghats. Some of these
studies provide information on the status of the species. In the intialstudy, Green & Minkowski (1977) estimated the
total wild population to be around 600 individuals and feared that the species
may be close to extinction. They based
their conclusions on the small area of occupancy and small population
size. However, further studies (Table 1)
revealed that the LTMs were present in many more areas than those reported by
Green & Minkowski. Many of these studies reported population
estimates only for small regions of occurrence of LTMs. Later, Karanth(1985) surveyed the entire rainforest region in the whole state of Karnataka
and reported that a sizable population existed there. He perceived a good
prospect for conservation of LTMs in Karnataka. Further studies revealed that the total population of LTMs was larger
than that estimated earlier. However, it
was realized that most of the subpopulations of LTMs inhabited forest fragments
that were largely isolated and ranged in size from less than 1km2 to about
20km2 (Kumar et al. 1998). At present,
there are three types of LTM habitats: (i) There are
areas with relatively large forest tracts without any fragmentation and thus
providing contiguous habitats (e.g. Silent Valley National Park and Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve), (ii) Forest fragments
surrounded by tea gardens or monocultures of commercial plantations where the
LTM groups are virtually isolated as they are unable to use their surroundings
for movement between fragments (e.g. Valparai plateau
of the Anaimalai Hills and Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary (Singh et al. 2002), and (iii) Fragmentation caused by scattered
villages with pockets of croplands interspersed inside a large stretch of
rainforests where the remaining narrow alleys of rainforests still connect
remaining patches of forests. These
alleys still make the local population of LTMs contiguous (e.g. Sirsi-Honnavara region of Karnataka (Kumara & Singh
2004)). There appear to be four regions
with potentially viable populations of LTMs in their natural habitats. Silent Valley in the state of Kerala harbours 14 groups with about 275 individuals (Ramachandran & Joseph 2000). In 2004, there were 32 groups of LTMs with an
estimated population of about 790 individuals inhabiting the forests of Sirsi-Honnavara between Sharavathyand Aghnashini rivers in the state of Karnataka
(Kumara & Singh 2004). A recent
survey revealed a sizable population of LTMs in the KudremukhNational Park and its adjoining regions (Kumara & Singh in press). The Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the state of Tamil
Nadu with about 440km2 of rainforests is a potentially viable habitat of LTMs (Molur et al. 2003). Although a number of groups have been sighted in this region (Johnson
1985), no recent quantitative population estimates are available. At present, the total wild population
comprises 3000-3500 individuals fragmented into 49 sub-populations (Molur et al. 2003) (Figure 1). The 31 well known groups in the Anaimalai Hills (Singh et al. 2002) are distributed in
seven unconnected subpopulations, and this pattern is more or less the same for
more than half of the wild population of LTMs. Recent studies show a severe decline in the number of groups and
individuals of LTMs from various regions. Once 10 groups of LTMs in the Brahmagiri-Makutregion of Karnataka (Karanth 1985) have now declined
to only one group and a single adult male (Kumara & Singh 2004). Likewise, 62 groups of LTMs observed in Kudremukh-Someshwara-Mukambika wildlife sanctuaries in 1985
(Karanth 1985) have now been reduced to only nine
groups (Vasudevan et al. 2006). Kumara & Sinha(in press) have reported a 69% decline in the population in other regions of
the state of Karnataka during the past about 25 years (Image 1). Though the number of groups in the Sirsi-Honnavara region of Karnataka is the same as in 2004
(Kumara & Singh 2004), the total number of individuals that was estimated
to be 790 is now about 600 (H.N. Kumara pers. comm. April 2008). Systematic data on such population trends
from other states are not available. One
reason that LTMs have declining habitat is that the lower elevation forests which are their prime habitat areas, have been clear
cut for the logging industry. However,
Kumara & Sinha (in press) have concluded that
since the rainforest habitats in Karnataka have not changed much during the
past 25 years or so, the drastic decline in numbers of LTMs is primarily due to
illegal hunting. In addition to habitat
fragmentation, illegal hunting now also appears to be a major threat for the
survival of Lion-tailed Macaques.
Conservation
It was already in the 1970s that the Lion-tailed Macaque was
realized as endangered, requiring urgent measures for in situconservation for the remaining populations. Forest and Wildlife Departments in the range states in southern India
identified some areas with contiguous rainforests and notified them as special
areas for LTM conservation. Kalakad-Mundanthurai in the state of Tamil Nadu, Silent
Valley in the state of Kerala, and Brahmagiri-Makutin the state of Karnataka were three such areas. However, the population status and population
trends in the subsequent years were not assessed in Kalakad-Mundanthurai. The LTM number in Silent Valley appears to
have remained stable over the years. In Brahmagiri, the 10 groups of LTMs known to exist in 1984
have now declined to only one group and the population has reached a point of
non-viability (see Kumar et al. 1994; Kumara & Singh 2004). Illegal hunting goes on unabated in many
regions.
During informal meetings of conservation biologists and forest
officials, several measures for population management were discussed such as
restocking in depleted habitats, male transfer between isolated forest
fragments, and managing unnatural demographies. However, no such steps were taken up. Discussions during meetings also revealed
that the situation did not yet warrant reintroduction of captive bred LTMs into
their wild habitats. ‘Experimental
reintroduction’ as proposed by Lindburg (2001) in some
confined forest patch in order to learn the know-how of procedures of
reintroduction was not even given a serious consideration. The few conservation measures as described
above were not put into effect and hence did not contribute to the improvement of
the status. Even in several ‘protected
areas’ and reserved forests with contiguous LTM habitats, illegal hunting has
become a serious threat. The forest
fragments inhabited by LTMs continue to shrink in size and the habitat quality
deteriorate in terms of food resources especially since many of these fragments
are on private lands and the forest departments have no ‘jurisdiction’ in such
properties. The species appears to be in
a worse situation than it was some 30 years ago.
Breeding
programs in zoos
The North American zoo
community recognized the seriously threatened status of the LTM in its natural
habitats quite early. It was therefore
intended to establish a viable population of the species in captivity that
might serve as a reserve. Such initiatives
were also taken up in Europe, Japan and India.
Captive breeding under
Species Survival Plan in North America
The history of captive
LTMs in North America has been described by Lindburg(2001). Although the LTMs have been in
American zoos since the later part of the 19th century, it was only in 1981
that the species was brought under a Species Survival Plan (SSP) of the
then American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA), currently
Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) with a goal to establish a viable
captive population. Gledhill (1988)
started an international studbook for the species and coordinated the
program. Much scientific input was
provided by Donald Lindburg, the then head of major
conservation programs for endangered species at San Diego Zoo and currently
Director Emeritus of San Diego Zoo’s office of Giant Panda Conservation. A science based management approach with
emphasis on genetic and reproductive biology resulted in a successfully growing
captive population of about 200 individuals. Since it was felt that space limitations required a smaller population
size without losing genetic diversity, ‘hedge breeding’ was propagated in 1991
(Lindburg 2001). The principle was to allow breeding only to a small number of genetically
valuable individuals. Many males were vasectomised, a number of females were neutered, and the
birth interval in breeding females was extended to increase the generation
time. About 15 years later, it was found
that the number of infants not only was reduced but it was even below the
number required for the survival of the population. It seems that the management schedule was not
compatible with the biological needs of the species. This practice also ignored the fact that in
the past, the LTM females in captivity did not reproduce in a predictable way,
and about 30% did not reproduce successfully at all (Lindburget al. 1981). There seems to be a risk
of disturbances in the hormonal cycles of females when kept with vasectomised males (Harvey & Lindburg2001). It could also be possible that
the resulting altered demographic and social structures contributed to breeding
problems. The status of the population
may also have been negatively affected by loss of interest in the species due
to a perceived ‘safe population size’ in wild habitats. Furthermore, the LTMs were considered as
carriers of dangerous viruses. The
situation now has reached a point that there are only a few females of breeding
age left in the SSP population (Scott Carter pers. comm., March 2008).
Captive breeding under
European Endangered Species Program
Following the North
American SSP, the LTM in European zoos was brought under EEP (European
Endangered Species Breeding Programs) in 1989. Between 1989 and 2006, Werner Kaumannscoordinated the program. Referring to
the Annual Reports and continuous analysis of the populations, Kaumanns & Rohrhuber (1995), Kaumanns et al. (2001) and Krebs & Kaumanns(2003) have described the development of the European population. During the first 10 years, the population
more than doubled due to some imports from other captive situations into the
population, relatively successful breeding, and increase in the number of
participating institutions from 12 to 33. At present, the metapopulation in Europe
comprises of more than 250 individuals but is required to be about 400 to be
viable (Kaumanns et al. 2005). However, Kaumannset al. (2001) also reported several problems with the population. As in the SSP population, more than 30% of
the females of the historical population did not reproduce at all. Further, among the successfully breeding
females, there was a large variance in reproductive output with few females
contributing most infants. Birth rates
increased over the decades but remained lower than expected and the infant
mortality remained high for unknown reasons despite improvement in living
conditions.
Captive breeding
initiatives in India
It has been repeatedly
propagated that India, the range country of the LTMs, must have a viable
captive population of the species. A few
Indian zoos were maintaining some confiscated individuals few of which bred
occasionally. In the past, there was no
attempt to establish a viable population by coordinated breeding programs. The first master plan for captive breeding of
LTMs in India was drawn in 1996 (Gledhill 1996), in order ‘to establish a
secure population with genetic diversity to support a future reintroduction
program, if needed’. Eight zoos were
identified for captive breeding and an elaborate schedule of animal transfer,
keeping and breeding was outlined. However, no elaborate action was taken up in the subsequent years. It was finally realized that the existing
population of about 60 individuals comprising small groups with unbalanced sex
ratios was not appropriate to achieve the goal. In 2001, another initiative was taken up by the Central Zoo Authority of
India for a “Coordinated Breeding Program” for LTMs. Three zoos viz. AraignarAnna Zoological Park, Vandalur, Shri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysuruand Thiruvananthapuram Zoo were identified for this purpose. A committee consisting of the Directors of
respective zoos and a few field biologists was constituted to implement and
oversee the program. It was planned to shift
scattered LTMs in other zoos in India (20 females, 32 males, in 16 zoos) to the
above three zoos for establishing new breeding groups. However, the Indian zoos holding individual
or two to three animals either did not respond or refused to send their animals
for the program. It was also decided to
add the study group of LTMs at Wild Animal Park of San Diego Zoo to the Indian
population. However, eventually the SSP decided that they had to retain the San
Diego group for re-establishing their own dwindling population of LTMs. The studbook for LTMs by the Wildlife
Institute of India attests to the fact that little breeding success has been
achieved in the captive populations of LTMs in India over these years. Comprising a few dozen individuals with occasional
births in a few zoos, the present population in India does not appear to have
much scope for development into a viable stock. By 2005 the captive LTM numbers in 19 Indian zoos were 29 males, 28
females, and 8 unsexed.
Authors Mewa Singh and Werner Kaumannshave taken up a recent plan to support Indian LTM populations as part of the Planned
Conservation Breeding Programs initiated by the Central Zoo AuthorityTheplan called for the LTM group of Cologne
Zoo, one of the most successful breeding groups of EEP, to be shifted to Mysore
Zoo, India for conservation breeding and research. However, till now the above plan has not
materialized due to bureaucratic hurdles in India.
Collating
and organizing conservation activities
Because of the
threatened status and the general interest in the species, five international
meetings have been held to plan for the conservation of LTMs four of which were
organized by Zoos (Baltimore Zoo, 1982; Woodland Park Zoological Gardens,
Seattle, 1986; San Diego Zoo, 1990; The Zoo Outreach Organization and Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Vandalur,
1993) and the fifth one by the University of Mysore (Mysore, 1999). During each meeting, the latest status of the
population in natural habitats and in captivity was presented and plans were
envisaged for conservation. Topics
including husbandry, maintaining viable captive populations, reintroduction of
surplus individuals, need for further field surveys, and filling of gaps of
research on biology were discussed. A
major achievement of these meetings was collation and presentation of knowledge
on status and biology of the species (Heltne 1985;
Kumar et al. 1995; Schwibbe et al. 2000, 2001). Other achievements of the meetings included
the passing of several resolutions, preparation of management plans for in
situ and ex situ populations, and formation of international
consortia to oversee LTM conservation and management. Whereas these plans influenced the ex situbreeding programs to a significant extent, they were rarely put into practice in
situ.
Perspectives
for Lion-tailed Macaque conservation
It may be inferred from
the foregoing discussion that both in situ and ex situconservation programs for the LTMs may have contributed to slow down the
process of extinction. However, these
programs were not efficient enough to prevent further shrinking of both the
wild and the captive populations. Since
time is running out, there is further need of readjustment of conservation
activities that should be based on critical evaluation of the shortcomings of
the past activities. Singh & Kaumanns (2005) have provided a general perspective for
research and conservation of LTMs.
By now, it is fairly
well known why the LTM is a threatened species. The possible steps for conservation have been repeatedly spelled out
during the past few years. Still, why
considerable progress has not been made is probably due to the lack of a
competent and responsible working unit that could take care of the problems and
efficiently implement the conservation measures. Conserving species like the LTM requires
protection of habitats and populations. However, this has to be based on the biology of the species. Since the execution of most management
activities requires governmental authority, they would have to be carried out
by forest and wildlife departments of the concerned states. As only the field biologists who have worked
on this species have the necessary special expertise, the working unit should
consist of authorities and biologists for management even on a day-to-day
basis. A few selected officers in the
Forest Departments should be trained in LTM biology and conservation, and they
should remain actively involved independent of their actual places of posting. Some non-governmental conservation organizations
and international ex situ expertise on LTMs should also be a part of
this working unit to help implement the conservation steps.
The first and the
foremost requirement is an updated reassessment of the remaining wild
populations. However, this assessment
has to be more than the occasional static counts of groups and individuals as
in the past. A subpopulation (a single
group as in a small forest fragment, or all groups with overlapping home ranges
as in a large forest tract) should be the unit of assessment. It is recommended that the assessments are
done biannually so that changes in demography e.g. births, deaths and
dispersal, are recorded on a regular basis and population dynamics are
analyzed locally. In addition, each
habitat should also be monitored along certain parameters so that the changes
in habitat quality are analyzed. The
assessments should be done state-wise and all data should be deposited with a
single institution. The recommended
institutions for this purpose are Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi for Kerala, University of Mysore for Karnataka, and
Zoo Outreach Organization for Tamil Nadu. Further, one of these institutions should collate the data for the
entire Western Ghats. The analyses
should refer to questions of small population biology such as question of
Effective Population Size. Possible
reasons for changes in demography should be identified. The quality of the analysis should be such
that it allows predictions not only for future population trends but also for
the effect of unexpected biological events such as random genetic drift. Management practices should be decided
locally for each subpopulation on the basis of trends in population and habitat
quality. The model of ‘adaptive
management’ should be adopted for these practices where the results of failure
or success of the previous attempt are incorporated into the next step of
management (Walters 1978).
During the past one
decade or so, several measures were suggested to manage LTM populations and
habitats in forest fragments (Kumar et al. 1998; Singh et al. 2002). These measures included enhancing the
resource quality in degraded fragments, linking fragments with narrow corridors
to facilitate at least male migration, and to exchange males among fragments. None of these suggestions have been
implemented. The working unit should
seriously try the implementation of these steps. Biologists could collect
systematic data on the outcome which could be used to develop a model for
management practices. Activities like
transfer of males between groups could be based on the concept of ‘experimental
reintroduction’ suggested by Lindburg (2001). For enhancing resource quality inside
fragments and for linking fragments, trees species that could provide large
amount of fruits, grow fast and provide good shade for coffee are required as
many fragments are in private lands and the interests of the farmers cannot be
overlooked. Help should be sought for
identification of such tree species from field biologists such as those from
Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, and Rainforest Research Station, Valparai, who have been working on such issues for a long
time.
The type of habitats
like Sirsi-Honnavara harbouringpotentially viable LTM populations in contiguous forest tracts that are being
encroached from within (Kumara & Singh 2004) should be legally designated
as LTM conservation areas. As the latest surveys in Karnataka have shown, a
large proportion of the LTM population has disappeared during a short period due
to illegal hunting (Kumara & Sinha in
press). Since the LTM has a very low
population turnover due to delayed sexual maturity and long inter-birth
intervals (Singh et al. 2006), highly reduced numbers in hunting affected areas
can cause rapid local extinctions. Nongovernmental organizations involved in education and awareness
building should be encouraged to work with locals in LTM areas to help reduce
or prevent hunting. It is, therefore,
necessary that the authorities find the ways and do their level best to control
hunting of LTM.
Lion-tailed Macaques
have been maintained in captivity for several decades as a species of special
conservation concern (e.g. SSP and EEP for this species). Experience has shown that it is a very
difficult species to breed in the long run. At present, there are about 500 individuals in the zoos worldwide. Although several males have been vasectomised and females neutered, there are at least about
300 individuals, most of them under EEP in Europe, who can breed. This captive population accounts for about 8%
of the total global population and therefore, it must be protected and
propagated. The captive population has
not only proved to be of value for research and conservation education, it can
also be maintained as a reserve. For
example, even if full scale reintroduction programs are not yet warranted,
surplus but breeding males could be used to infuse new genes in forest
fragments where natural dispersal is not possible or the resident male(s)
dies. The captive breeding program under
EEP has been doing comparatively well and it must continue heading for a much
larger population as has been recommended for a number of years in the EEP (Kaumanns et al. 2006). The SSP must rejuvenate the LTM breeding program in order to improve the
population status. India still has to
build up its population of LTM in zoos. Before an elaborate population management there can be realized, LTM
holding institutions must improve the basic infrastructure for primate
husbandry. The LTMs under human care in
India should be looked after by the working unit mentioned earlier. As recommended in the case of forest
officials, a few zoo curators and veterinarians must get special training in
LTM husbandry and they should be involved in the LTM programs on regular basis
despite their frequent transfers to other places. Recently, a major project has been undertaken
by National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai to establish
a National Center for Primate Breeding and Research (Puri& Ganguly 2005). We strongly recommend that this center take up LTM breeding not to
procure animals for biomedical research but for facilitating conservation. If successful, the center should share the
know-how with zoos maintaining LTMs. In
order to improve LTM husbandry and population management, it is proposed to
refer to husbandry guidelines developed by the two authors MS and WK (Kaumanns et al. 2005). These guidelines are based on almost 20 years of work with European
population and intensive analyses of its development.
Because of its
restricted range, endemism to a small region, threatened status, the LTM has
attracted special conservation concerns. These concerns also stimulated biological research and the species today
is one of the most well studied macaque species in wild and in captivity. However, despite these activities, the LTM is
still threatened and the species might even become ‘Critically Endangered’ if
the present declining trend in population continues. In situ and ex situ conservation
measures need to be intensified. The
most urgent need is the establishment of a responsible working unit including
forest officers, biologists and zoo professionals. The management practices must incorporate the
results of biological research. There
are still several gaps in our knowledge about the LTM biology that need to be
filled up. For example, the effects of
fragmentation on such factors as genetic status, hormonal cycles, parasitic
status, demographic dynamics, and nutritional status, have not yet been
satisfactorily investigated. The LTM is
a flagship species for the Western Ghats, but it should also become a flagship
species for the development of management models for other species that are not
so well studied but are also threatened by small population size and habitat
fragmentation.
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