Journal of Threatened Taxa |
www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 July 2018 | 10(8): 12044–12055
Community structure of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna of river Ichamati, India
Arnab Basu1,
Indrani Sarkar2, Siddartha
Datta3 & Sheela Roy4
1,2,4 Department of Zoology, Vidyasagar
College, 39, Sankar Ghosh
Lane, Kolkata, West Bengal 700006, India
3 Jadavpur University, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
1arnab.basu3@rediffmail.com, 2sarkarindrani.biswas@gmail.com,
3sdatta_che@rediffmail.com, 4roysheela77@yahoo.co.in
(corresponding author)
Abstract: Benthic macroinvertebrate
communities are frequently applied as indicators of aquatic ecosystem health as
many species are responsive to pollution and abrupt changes in their
surroundings. The qualities of benthic
invertebrate communities greatly depend on habitat conditions. Thus the diversity in benthic community
varies with different habitat conditions.
This investigation on the structure of the benthic invertebrate
communities was conducted on river Ichamati, a
trans-boundary river between India and Bangladesh to assess the cumulative
effects of water quality on the aquatic biota.
The study period extended from February 2011 to January 2014 at three
sites from Majdiah to Hasanabad
(in West Bengal, India) a stretch of 124km.
A total of 23 macrobenthic species belonging
to three phyla, five classes and nine orders were identified. Fifteen species of benthic invertebrates
belonging to Mollusca, three species under Annelida and five species under Arthropoda were found.
The highest abundance density (3633.33 indiv.m-2) and species
richness (18 species) were recorded up-stream (Majdiah)
where marginal habitats covered by macrophytes were
significantly higher than at other sites.
Both the organic carbon (4.41±1.11) and organic matter (7.48±1.56) of
soil at this site were the maximum thus influencing the richness of benthic macroinvertebrate communities. Hydrological variables, viz,
dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity; hardness, salinity, nutrients, calcium, and
magnesium were studied to determine their influences on the benthic community
in the upper, middle- and down-streams of the river, respectively. Shannon’s diversity index (0.95–2.07;
0.00–0.72; 0.00–0.64), dominance index (0.57–0.86; 0.00–0.44; 0.00–0.44),
evenness index (0.72–0.95; 0.61–1.00; 0.00–1.00), Margalef
index (0.72–2.23; 0.00–1.32; 0.00-0.28) of the upper, middle- and down-streams
were calculated. Benthic macroinvertebrate density
was correlated with hydrological variables which
indicated that the abiotic factors had either direct or inverse influence on
the richness and abundance; however, the abiotic factors did not correlate
identically in all three sites.
Keywords: Diversity indices, hydrological
variables, macrophytes, species richness.
Doi: http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3439.10.8.12044-12055
| ZooBank:
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FD3AD5B0-049B-4541-84AD-9D6CB288C406
Editor: Asheesh Shivam, Nehru Gram Bharti
University, Allahabad, India. Date of publication: 26 July 2018
(online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms # 3439 |
Received 04 April 2017 | Final received 18 May 2018 | Finally accepted 30 June
2018
Citation: Basu, A., I. Sarkar,
S. Datta & S. Roy (2018).
Community structure
of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna of river Ichamati, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(8): 12044–12055; http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3439.10.8.12044-12055
Copyright: © Basu et al. 2018. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and distribution
by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Funding: Department of Science and Technology, Government of West Bengal, India.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author
Details: Dr. Arnab Basu teaches
fisheries science both in undergraduate and post graduate
sections of the Zoology Department, Vidyasagar College.
His field of research includes ecology,
environmental biology and aquaculture. Dr. Indrani
Sarkar is an
assistant professor and at present the head of the
department of Zoology, Vidyasagar college, Kolkata.
She has been actively engaged in teaching (both in under graduate and post
graduate levels) and aquaculture research for past ten years. Prof. Siddartha Datta, former pro-vice chancellor of Jadavpur University, Kolkata and the head of the department
of Chemical Engineering, Jadavpur University is an eminent scientist and a teacher. His research interest
stretches from engineering to many interdisciplinary fields of biological
sciences.
Dr. Sheela Roy,
Associate Professor of Zoology (Retd.), Vidyasagar College, Kolkata has undergraduate/post graduate
teaching experiences of more than twenty five years with simultaneous research
experiences in different fields of fisheries science in India and abroad. She
has worked on Government sponsored research projects to enhance the
understanding of fisheries and ecology.
Author
Contribution:
AB & IS: fieldwork, data analysis and manuscript draft preparation. SR
& SD: overall supervision of research work, editing and final manuscript
preparation.
Acknowledgements: SR expresses
gratefulness to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of West
Bengal, India for financial assistance and to the Principal, Vidyasagar College, Kolkata, India
for extending the laboratory facilities.
INTRODUCTION
Benthic macroinvertebrates
are sedentary or sessile aquatic fauna that exist in the bottom substrates of
their habitats (Lenat et al. 1981; Victor
& Ogbeibu 1985; Rosenberg & Resh 1993; Idowu & Ugwumba 2005) at least for a part of their life cycle. The benthic fauna perform a key role in
nutrient cycling and are also used as food for other aquatic animals (Lind
1979; Milbrink 1983; Jana & Manna 1995). Further they play a critical role as a link
in the aquatic food chain affecting bio-geochemical processes in the sediment
(Wetzel 2001; Heck et al. 2003; Pokorny´ & Kveˇt 2004; Idowu & Ugwnmba 2005).
Benthic invertebrates are difficult to sample especially in deep
subsurface sediments. Thus, the species
richness and functional importance of freshwater benthic invertebrates usually
goes unnoticed until unpredicted changes occur in the ecosystems. Besides these organisms are used as
bio-indicators as they frequently respond to pollution stress (Stanford & Spacie 1994; Gamlath & Wijeyartne 1997; Ikomi et al.
2005). The community structure of
benthic macroinvertebrates is influenced by the physico-chemical parameters of the water body (Timm et al. 2001; Johnson et al. 2004; Kagalou
et al. 2006; Celik et al. 2010). Examination of parameters like richness,
diversity, abundance, evenness and community composition are essential to
determine the natural or anthropogenic changes with time (Mittermeier
& Mittermeier 1997; Dudgeon et al. 2006; Srivastava 2007; Strayer &
Dudgeon 2010; Jun et al. 2016). In
riverine ecosystem macrobenthic invertebrates show an
uneven distribution (Timms 2006).
River Ichamati
(‘Icha’ - fish and ‘moti’ -
pearl), is one of the important trans-boundary rivers between Bangladesh and
India, has variable biological, physical and chemical characteristics due to
its irregular discharge pattern, diverse habitat arising out of abiotic and
anthropogenic activities and both brackish and freshwater characters. Presently, this river is facing various
environmental constraints due to siltation, discharge of organic debris from
human settlements, production of macrophytic biomass,
lack of sanitation and over-fishing (Das et al. 2012). Thus, it is ever more important to preserve
the biodiversity of aquatic flora and fauna in this river to lower the risk of
sudden unwanted consequences. A number
of studies on macrobenthic community structure and
hydrochemistry of various water-bodies are well documented (Degani
et al. 1992; Jana & Manna 1995; Mancini et al. 2004; Moretti & Callisto 2005; Dolbeth et al. 2007; Sharma & Dhanze
2012; Basu et al. 2013; Mishra & Nautiyal 2013, 2017; Nautiyal
& Mishra 2013; Nautiyal et al. 2017).
To the best of our knowledge, information
on macrobenthic fauna of river Ichamati
is unavailable so far. This encouraged
us to undertake the present study on the river to ascertain: (i) the structure and composition of the benthic macroinvertebrate species, (ii) the environmental factors
(natural as well as anthropogenic) responsible for the community patterns,
(iii) the present ecological status of the river and (iv) determine the quality
of water by using benthic fauna to establish the pollution level of the river
to create a base line data.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of the study area
The river Ichamati
is among the important trans-boundary rivers sharing the boundaries between
Bangladesh and India. River Mathabhanga originates from the right bank of Padma at Munshigunj in Kustia District,
Bangladesh. It bifurcates near Majhdia (Nadia District, West Bengal, India) creating two
rivers, Ichamati and Churni. River Ichamati
traverses a course of about 216km and finally discharges into the river Kalindi at Hasnabad in the
district of North 24 Parganas and ultimately finds
its way into the Bay of Bengal near Moore Island as a part of Kalindi-Raimangal estuary in the deltaic southern part of
West Bengal. After about a 19.5km long
journey in India it re-enters Bangladesh.
It crosses the border again near Duttafulia in
Nadia District (West Bengal, India).
After a further 21km, it falls into the Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh near
Hasnabad and Taki.
The stream at its origin is narrow and
shallow clogged by macrophytes such as Eicchornia, Pistia, Lemna and Alternanthera. The middle and down reaches of the river are
now facing problems due to siltation, high fluvial allochthonus
discharges from the river banks, discharge of organic debris from the human
settlements along the river, all domestic works such as bathing, washing
clothes, utensils, bathing of cattle, lack of sanitation practices, boat ferry,
immersion of idols during festivals etc.
The study period extended from February, 2011 to January, 2014 at three sites from Majdiah to Hasanabad (in West
Bengal, India) a stretch of 124km. The
locations of the sites chosen were (1) near the origin (Majdiah;
up-stream, site I), (2) middle part of the stretch (Tetulia;
middle-stream, site II), finally Hasanabad
(down-stream, site III) before it reaches river Kalindi
in the south (Mondal & Bandyopadhyay
2016).
Locations and characteristics of the sites
Locations of the sites (I, II and III) are
marked in Images 1, 2. Physiological and
geographical characteristics of the three sites are given in Table 1.
Sampling methods
Water samples were collected from two
sampling points (140m apart) in each site in 1 L clean plastic containers
between 06:00–08:00 hr during February 2011 to
January 2014 twice a month and transported to the laboratory for chemical
analyses.
Water temperature was recorded using
mercury glass thermometer (0–60 0C).
Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS)
and pH were measured by ELICO Ion analyzer
(Model: PE 138, India). All other water
quality variables such as dissolved oxygen (DO), free carbon dioxide, total
alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, nitrate, salinity
and transparency, organic matter and organic carbon were monitored following
standard protocol, American Public Health Association (APHA) (2005).
Benthic invertebrates were collected twice
a month with a specialized box sampler having a dimension of 15 x 15 cm which can penetrate a maximum depth of 15cm (Paul &
Nandi 2003). The samples were sieved
with No. 40 mesh (pore size: 0.420mm) (Jana & Manna, 1995; Tagliapietra & Sigovini
2010). Considering the depth of the
down-stream, desired samples were collected with the help of local
fishermen. Collected organisms were
preserved in 4% formalin. Benthic macroinvertebrate were then identified following Michael
(1977) for the phylum Annelida, Barnes et al. (1988) and Rao
(1989) for the phylum Mollusca whereas Arthropoda by
the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India.
Benthic macroinvertebrates were quantitatively
analysed by individual counting of each taxon and expressed in individuals/m2.
Taxonomic indices was subjected to univariate analyses for studying the benthic community
structure using Margalef’s richness index, Margalef (1968) for species richness (counts the number of
different species in a community), Pielou’s Evenness
index (Pielou 1966) for species evenness (quantifies
the relative abundance of species present in a community), Shannon-Weiner index
(Shannon & Weiner 1964) for species diversity (reflects the types of
species present in a particular area at a particular time) and Simpson’s
Dominance Index (Simpson 1949) for dominancy (quantifies the dominancy sharing
species in a community). The data were
computed using Paleontological Statistical software (PAST version 3.15). Pearson correlation (r) was applied to
analyse the relationship between the benthic macroinvertebrates
density and hydrological variables. The
graphs were plotted with MS Excel Software.
RESULTS
The range and average of all water
parameters were recorded in Table 2. In
the Ichamati, 23 benthic macroinvertebrate
species were found from all the samples collected from upper-, middle- and
down-streams (Table 3). Of these,
up-stream was the richest with species (18) followed by middle-stream (5) and
down-stream (2). The maximum density
(individual m-2) was found in the following sequence, i.e., up- >
middle- > down- streams. Fig. 1 showed the monthly variations of total
benthic macroinvertebrate community in three
different sites of Ichamati. Benthic macroinvertebrate
community was available throughout the year up-stream with peaks in the months
of June and September (Fig. 1). Down-
and middle-streams showed similar trends where the communities gradually
increased from October and reached the maximum in May (Fig. 1). In down-stream, during monsoons
(June–September) it was not possible to find and collect any benthic macroinvertebrate samples due to the dangerous rise in
water levels and the highly turbulent character of the water. Perhaps, due to the same reason a low
concentration of benthic macroinvertebrate was found
mid-stream during the monsoons.
The results are presented separately for
all three different study sites as follows:
(A) At upper reaches of Ichamati
In the upper-stream, 13 species of
Mollusca belonging to class Gastropoda (three orders)
and class Bivalvia (one order) dominated the
community followed by Annelida (2 orders) and Arthropoda
(one order). The population of benthic
invertebrates was dominated mainly by three taxa of Mollusca: namely, Bellamya bengalensis
Lamarck 1822, Bellamya dissimilis
Muller, 1774 and Gyraulus convexiusculus Hutton, 1849 (Table 3). The abundance of B. bengalensis
increased to maximum density (322.22) in the pre-monsoon period then its
population declined. In comparison, the B.
dissimilis after attaining its population peak in
pre-monsoons (255.54) drastically declined in the post-monsoon period
(33.33). B. crassa was completely absent in pre-monsoon
periods. On the other hand, species like
Segmentina in monsoon and pre-monsoon periods
and Melanoides in the monsoons were completely
absent. Brotia
and Bythinia were found in all seasons
(Table 4).
During the investigation, one Bivalvia taxa (Lamellidens
marginalis Lamarck 1819) was found exclusively in
the pre-monsoons. Hutton 1849 found maximum Gyraulus
convexiusculus (411.10) in the monsoons was
another dominant species among Mollusca (Table 4). Further, two species of phylum Annelida (Glyphidrilus tuberosus
Stephenson, 1916 and Pheretima posthuma Kinberg, 1867) could
be detected both in monsoon and post-monsoon periods. Interestingly, Sartoriana spingera
Wood-Mason, 1871, was the only Arthropoda found
up-stream during the monsoon period (Table 4).
The benthic macroinvertebrate
community (Fig. 3a) was dominated by molluscans
(82.35%) followed by annelids (11.76%), and arthropods (5.88%) (Fig. 3a). The data
on analysis revealed that benthic macroinvertebrate
abundance was the highest in post-monsoons followed by pre-monsoon and monsoon
periods.
Maximum species diversity (1.79) and
Simpson’s dominance index (0.79) were recorded in the monsoon period and
minimum species diversity (1.58) and dominance index (0.75) in the
pre-monsoons. Species richness, i.e., Margalef’s index was found to be the maximum during
monsoons and minimum in the pre-monsoon period.
Pielou’s evenness index was found to vary from
0.81 to 0.87 (Table 5).
Water temperature, transparency, free CO2,
salinity, organic carbon, TDS and nutrients were positively correlated with the
benthic macroinvertebrate abundance (Table 6). Dissolved oxygen and total alkalinity, two
important parameters were negatively correlated with benthic macroinvertebrate density.
These water parameters were additionally correlated individually with
density of Gastropoda, Bivalvia,
Annelida and Arthropoda (Table 7) in up-stream only.
(B) At middle reaches of Ichamati
The benthic macroinvertebrate
community was dominated by Mollusca (88.43%) followed by Arthropoda
(9.26%) and Annelida (2.31%) (Fig. 3b). Arthropoda Metapograpsus latifrons
White, 1847 was found maximum (166.66) in post-monsoon whereas Scylla serrata Forsskål, 1775 was
found only during the monsoons (Table 4).
Only one Annelida, i.e., Neanthes was
found maximum during pre-monsoons and declined at the onset of the
monsoon. Pila
globosa Swainson 1822,
the Gastropoda were identified during monsoon and
post-monsoon periods. One bivalvian species, Modiolus
was recorded in maximum density (1965.33) during pre-monsoons (Table 4). Diversity index and dominance index recorded
were the maximum in the monsoons and minimum in the pre-monsoons (Table
5). Evenness index and richness index
was found to be maximum in the post-monsoon period.
In the middle-stream, all the water and
soil parameters except DO, free CO2 and phosphate were positively
correlated with benthic macroinvertebrate density
(Table 6).
(C) At down reaches of Ichamati
The benthic macroinvertebrate
community (Fig. 3c) was dominated by Mollusca (89.01%) followed by Arthropoda (10.99%; Fig. 3c). Two species of Arthropoda,
Ocypode sp. were absent in the monsoons
but were present in pre- and post-monsoon periods (Table 4). Scylla tranquebarica
was minimum (11.11) in the monsoons, but found in the other two seasons. One bivalvian
species Modiolus was maximum
(711.10) during pre-monsoons (Table 4).
All the taxonomic indices determined (Table 5) were found to have
maximum values in post-monsoon and minimum in monsoon periods.
In down-stream, total alkalinity,
phosphate, organic carbon and organic matter were negatively correlated with
benthic macroinvertebrate density, the rest of the
parameters were positively correlated (Table 6).
Table 1. Geographical and physical characteristics of three sites of
river Ichamati
|
Characteristics |
Up-stream |
Middle-stream |
Down-stream |
1 |
Geograhical location |
23.420490N & 88.727590E |
22.785930N & 88.858430E |
22.571900N, 88.913550E |
2 |
Depth of river (m) Summer Monsoon |
1.0–1.5 1.5–2.0 |
1.5–3.0 2.5–4.0 |
8.0–9.0 not measured |
3 |
Width of river (m) |
100.00 |
250.00 |
400.00 |
4 |
Substrate combination |
clay, silt, and mud |
sine sand, silt, small
amount of mud with small pebbles |
sand and silt, small
amount of mud and gravels |
5 |
Vegetation |
aquatic
plant present |
absent |
Absent |
6 |
Land use type Right bank Left bank |
none extensive
agriculture |
village,
agriculture, bheri culture, brick
kiln |
urbanisation, town, bridge construction |
7 |
Anthropogenic interferences |
fishing |
domestic
activities, cattle farming, crematorium, fishing |
domestic
activities, ferry boat, idol immersion, fishing, sewerage |
8 |
Flow of river |
stagnant to
gentle |
strong |
very strong |
Table 2. Limnological variables in Ichamati
Limnological Parameters |
Upper reaches |
Middle reaches |
Down reaches |
pH |
7.10–8.50 (7.86 ± 0.15) |
7.10–8.30 (7.51 ± 0.13) |
7.10–8.75 (7.67 ± 0.15) |
aTDS (ppt) |
141.00–353.90 ( 232.06 ±
19.61) |
0.18–14.75 (4.43 ± 1.55) |
1.70–17.11 (7.55 ± 1.63) |
Water Temperature (oC) |
16.50–31.00 (25.21 ± 1.52) |
18.00–32.00 (26.67 ± 1.29) |
18.6–32.20 (28.21 ± 4.08) |
Water Transparency (cm) |
17.70–70.00 (37.79 ± 4.93) |
5.95–27.50 (13.75 ± 1.64) |
4.20–12.75 (7.82 ± 0.79) |
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) |
3.40–6.24 (4.50 ± 0.23) |
4.02–14.20 (8.31 ± 0.88) |
4.00–8.10 (5.61 ± 0.28) |
Free bCO2 (ppm) |
4.00–12.00 (7.5 ± 0.65) |
0.00–8.65 (3.05± 2.61) |
0.00–8.00 (3.33 ± 0.83) |
Phosphate (ppm) |
0.40–0.72 (0.55± 0.02) |
0.40–1.46 (0.62 ± 0.09) |
0.40–1.40 (0.81 ± 0.09) |
Nitrate (ppm) |
0.35–0.90 (0.68 ± 0.04) |
0.40–2.50 (1.03 ± 0.19) |
0.30–1.00 (0.75 ± 0.05) |
Total Alkalinity (ppm) |
52.80–108.00 (78.21 ± 3.98) |
32.00–183.86 (75.24 ± 14.43) |
46.60–73.20 (59.75 ± 2.48 ) |
Total Hardness (ppm) |
90.00–490.00 (270.27 ± 31.17) |
165.30–2772.50 (750.64 ± 242.22) |
380.00–3053.00 (1444.34 ± 289.32) |
Calcium (ppm) |
29.26–86.25 (52.54 ± 5.17) |
31.20–532.26 (166.41 ± 54.93) |
45.90–308.30 (125.82 ± 23.15) |
Magnesium (ppm) |
4.14–53.31 (28.66 ± 4.61) |
12.80–352.50 (81.85 ± 28.18) |
56.05–618.01 (285.81 ± 61.08) |
Salinity (ppt) |
0.03–0.04 (0.03 ± 0.0005) |
0.03–0.47 (0.16 ± 0.05) |
0.07–0.48 (0.24 ± 0.04) |
Organic Carbon (mg/g) |
0.73–11.56 (4.41 ± 1.11) |
0.13–6.12 (2.90 ± 0.52) |
1.15–6.9 (4.09 ± 0.59) |
Organic Matter (mg/g) |
1.19–19.56 (7.48 ± 1.56) |
0.22–10.52 (4.94 ± 0.9) |
1.95–11.73 (3.95 ± 0.78) |
aTDS =
Total dissolved solids, bCO2= Carbon dioxide
Table 3. Distribution of benthic invertebrates in Ichamati
Benthic invertebrates |
Up-stream |
Middle-stream |
Down-stream |
|
Phylum: I Mollusca Class: I Gastropoda Order: I Mesogastropoda |
Brotia costula Rafinesque,
1833 |
+ |
- |
- |
2. Bithynia cerameopoma Benson, 1830 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
3. Bellamya bengalensis
Lamarck, 1822 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
4. Bellamya dissimilis
Muller, 1774 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
5. Bellamya crassa
Benson, 1836 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
6. Segmentina calatha
Benson, 1850 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
7. Melanoides tuberculata
Muller, 1774 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
8. Gabbia orcula
Frauenfeld, 1862 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
Order: II Basommatophora |
9. Pseudosuccinea luteola (Lamarck, 1799) |
+ |
- |
- |
10. Pseudosuccinea acuminate (Lamarck,
1799) |
+ |
- |
- |
|
11. Gyraulus convexiusculus
Hutton, 1849 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
12. Indoplanorbis exustus Deshayes, 1834 |
+ |
- |
- |
|
Order: III Megagastropoda |
13. Pila globosa
Swainson, 1822 |
+ |
+ |
- |
Class: II Bivalvia Order: I Eulamellibranchiata Family: Unionidae |
14. Lamallidens marginalis Lamarck, 1819 |
+ |
- |
- |
Order: II Mytiloida Family: I Mytilidae |
15. Modiolus striatules
Hanley, 1843 |
+ |
+ |
- |
Phylum: II Annelida Class:I Oligochaeta Order :I Ophisthophora |
16. Pheretima postuma
Kinberg, 1867 |
+ |
- |
- |
Order: II Haplotaxida Class: II Polychaeta Order: I Phyllodocida |
17. Glyphidrilus tuberosus Stephenson, 1916 |
+ |
- |
- |
18. Neanthes sp. Frey
& Leuckart, 1847 |
- |
+ |
- |
|
Phylum: III Arthropoda Subphylum: I Crustacea Order: I Decapoda Family:I Portunidae |
19. Scylla tranquebarica Fabricius, 1798 |
- |
- |
+ |
20. Scylla serrata Forsskål, 1775 |
- |
+ |
- |
|
Family: II Gecarcinucidae |
21. Sartoriana spinigera
Wood-Mason, 1871 |
+ |
- |
- |
Family:II Grapsidae |
22. Metapograpsus latifrons White, 1847 |
- |
+ |
- |
Family: III Ocypodidae |
23. Ocypode macrocera
H. Milne Edwars, 1837 |
- |
- |
+ |
Table 4. Average density of benthic macroinvertebrates
in up-, middle- and down- streams of Ichamati
A. Up-stream |
Pre-monsoon |
Monsoon |
Post-monsoon |
I. Molluscs (Individuals/m2) |
|||
Brotia costula |
66.66 |
88.88 |
88.88 |
Bythinia cerameopoma |
44.44 |
144.44 |
199.99 |
Pseudosuccinea acuminata |
55.55 |
11.11 |
11.11 |
Pseudosuccinea luteola |
111.10 |
11.11 |
44.44 |
Gyraulus convexiusculus |
44.44 |
411.1 |
77.77 |
Bellamya bengalensis |
322.22 |
233.32 |
233.31 |
Bellamya dissimilis |
255.54 |
233.32 |
33.33 |
Bellamya crassa |
0 |
77.77 |
33.33 |
Segmentina calatha |
0 |
0 |
22.22 |
Melanoides tuberculata |
0 |
0 |
55.55 |
Lamellidens marginalis |
11.11 |
0 |
0 |
Indoplanorbis exustus |
144.44 |
88.88 |
0 |
Gabbia orcula |
88.88 |
44.44 |
66.67 |
Pila globosa |
11.11 |
22.22 |
11.11 |
II. Annelids (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Glyphidrilus tuberosus |
0 |
11.11 |
22.22 |
Pheretima postuma |
0 |
88.88 |
55.55 |
III. Arthropods (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Sartoriana spinigera |
0 |
55.55 |
0 |
B. Middle-stream |
|
|
|
I. Molluscs (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Pila globosa |
0 |
144.43 |
66.66 |
Modiolus striatules |
1965.33 |
0 |
370.44 |
II. Annelids (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Neanthes sp. |
44.44 |
22.22 |
0 |
III. Arthropods (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Scylla serrata |
0 |
44.44 |
0 |
Metapograpsus latifrons |
0 |
55.55 |
166.66 |
C. Down-stream |
|
|
|
I. Molluscs (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Modiolus striatules |
711.10 |
0 |
188.88 |
II. Arthropods (Individuals/m2) |
|
|
|
Ocypode sp. |
33.33 |
0 |
55.55 |
Scylla transquebarica |
55.55 |
11.11 |
44.44 |
Table 5. Taxonomic indices of benthic macroinvertebrate
community in river Ichamati
Seasons |
Dominance index |
Shannon’s diversity index |
Evenness index |
Margalef’s index |
||||||||
Site 1 |
Site 2 |
Site 3 |
Site 1 |
Site 2 |
Site 3 |
Site 1 |
Site 2 |
Site 3 |
Site 1 |
Site 2 |
Site 3 |
|
Pre-monsoon |
0.75 |
0.02 |
0.44 |
1.58 |
0.05 |
0.07 |
0.87 |
0.90 |
0.42 |
1.52 |
0.03 |
0.04 |
Monsoon |
0.79 |
0.17 |
0.00 |
1.79 |
0.26 |
0.00 |
0.79 |
0.92 |
0.25 |
1.94 |
0.12 |
0.00 |
Post-monsoon |
0.77 |
0.11 |
0.17 |
1.64 |
0.19 |
0.27 |
0.81 |
0.96 |
0.93 |
1.80 |
0.35 |
0.12 |
Table 6. Correlation among limnological
parameters and benthic macroinvertebrate density.
Macro-benthos density/m2 |
Limnological parameters |
Up-stream |
Middle-stream |
Down-stream |
Water temperature (0C) |
0.33a |
0.02 |
0.62 |
|
Water transparency (cm) |
0.07 |
-0.03 |
-0.55 |
|
pH |
-0.05 |
0.78c |
0.12 |
|
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) |
-0.17a |
-0.24 a |
0.00 |
|
Free dCO2 (ppm) |
0.10a |
-0.17a |
-0.24b |
|
Total alkalinity (ppm) |
-0.02 |
0.85 c |
-0.37 a |
|
Total hardness(ppm) |
-0.01 |
0.95 c |
0.48 a |
|
Calcium (ppm) |
-0.16a |
0.95 c |
0.55 b |
|
Magnesium (ppm) |
0.06 |
0.86 |
0.47 |
|
Phosphate (ppm) |
0.29a |
-0.08 |
-0.37 a |
|
Nitrate (ppm) |
0.17a |
0.55b |
0.05 |
|
Salinity (ppt) |
0.06 |
0.93 c |
0.50 b |
|
eEC (ms) |
-0.32 |
0.91 |
-0.67 |
|
fTDS (ppt) |
0.23 |
0.90 |
0.53 |
|
Organic carbon (mg/g) |
0.47 a |
0.48 a |
-0.30 a |
|
Organic matter (mg/g) |
0.47 a |
0.48 a |
-0.03 |
Table 7. Correlation among limnological
parameters and benthic macroinvertebrates density at
up-stream.
Limnological parameters |
|
|||
Gastropoda |
Bivalvia |
Annelida |
Arthropoda |
|
Water temperature (0C) |
0.95c |
0.34a |
-0.14a |
0.64b |
Water transparency (cm) |
-0.58b |
-0.84c |
0.70c |
-0.05 |
pH |
0.85c |
0.47a |
0.65b |
-0.99c |
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) |
-0.38a |
-0.90c |
-0.97c |
0.82c |
Total alkalinity (ppm) |
0.96c |
0.33a |
-0.13a |
0.65b |
Total hardness (ppm) |
-0.88c |
0.43a |
-0.61b |
-0.99c |
Calcium (ppm) |
-0.98c |
-0.24a |
0.03 |
-0.72c |
Magnesium (ppm) |
-0.51a |
-0.88c |
0.77c |
0.04 |
Phosphate (ppm) |
0.99c |
0.08 |
0.13a |
0.82c |
Nitrate (ppm) |
0.97c |
-0.17a |
0.37a |
0.94c |
Salinity (ppt) |
0.05 |
1 |
-0.98c |
-0.5a |
dEC (ms) |
-0.98c |
-0.23a |
0.02 |
-0.72c |
eTDS (ppt) |
-0.99c |
-0.14a |
-0.07 |
-0.79c |
Organic carbon (mg/g) |
0.87c |
-0.45a |
0.63b |
0.99c |
Organic matter (mg/g) |
0.86c |
-0.45a |
0.63b |
0.99c |
a
= 5% level of significance; b =1% level of significance; c =
0.1% level
of significance, d =
electrical conductivity, e = total dissolved solids
DISCUSSION
The glory of river Ichamati
has faded a lot with time. Ichamati now faces problems like forcible land occupation,
weed infestation, different environment hazards due to lack of sanitation
facilities, encroachment, ground water contamination etc. Destruction of aquatic flora and fauna in the
river is the most serious problem regarding the ecosystem.
The important factors that affect the
abundance of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna in a
given community include the hydro-biology of water,
substrate of occupants and food availability (Olenin
1997; Nelson & Lieberman 2002; Carlisle et al. 2007; Coleman et al. 2007;
Li et al. 2012; Basu et al. 2013).
The pH of water of all three sites
indicated the alkaline nature of the water; the pH of the up-stream was the
highest (7.86 ± 0.15) compared to the two other sites. The richness of diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates was found maximum in up-stream due
probably to the alkaline nature and shallow depth of the river. Simpson et al. (1985), Feldman &
Connor (1992) and Baldigo et al. (2009) also found
that the site with the higher pH had a higher diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates.
Benthic macroinvertebrates
density was negatively correlated with DO level as they could survive in poor
DO conditions. In this study the low
dissolved oxygen content observed in up-stream water might be due to the high
organic matter decomposition from macrophyte
vegetation and also bottom type which contained high percentage of mud (Sandin 2003; Williams & Gormally
2009; Jiang et al. 2010; Schultz & Dibble 2012; Zybek
et al.2012). The high DO contents in
middle- and down- streams were attributed to non-vegetation and strong water
current characteristics of these two sites (Soszka
1975; Cogerino et al. 1995).
The low density of benthic macroinvertebrate was observed during the present study in
all three sites particularly in middle- and down- streams. The species richness of benthic macroinvertebrate were found to be the highest in up-stream
probably due to suitable habitat conditions, organically enriched soft bottom (Ingole et al. 2002), slow water current, shallow depth (Roy
& Gupta 2010), bottom substrate (muddy and clayey) and the presence of macrophytes in marginal water (Kumar et al. 2013;
Tall et al. 2016).
Molluscans were mostly associated with very low oxygen and lentic ecosystems (Spyra 2010). The
up-stream of Ichamati was enriched with molluscan density (13 species). The water in this region was motionless and
had a shallow substratum with decomposed organic matter which
facilitated the molluscans growth, especially Gastropoda (Principe & Corrigliano
2006; Zybek et al. 2012). The lowest concentrations of salinity,
hardness and alkalinity of water may have enhanced the abundance of species in
the up-stream, hence these parameters showed the negative correlations with
benthic macroinvertebrate densities. This was further substantiated by the
observation of Brucet et al. (2012). Two oligochaetes, Pheretima posthuma
and Glyphidrilus tuberosus
were present up-stream due to their preference for organically enriched
polluted water bodies with low oxygen content, also noted by Barquin & Beath (2011). This was further corroborated by the negative
correlation with dissolved oxygen, total hardness, total alkalinity and
positive correlation with nutrients, organic carbon and organic matter (Table
6). Pheretima,
though a terrestrial species, was found during monsoon and
post-monsoon periods when the riverbank was flooded. Possibly because of inundation, they were
found within 1m inside the river from the edge during these periods; however, Brraich & Kaur (2017)
very recently described the abundance of Pheretima
in ‘Wetland of National Importance’, the Nangal
wetland which came into existence with the construction of a barrage on the
River Satluj, Punjab, India.
Gyraulus convexiusculus was found in all
seasons in the upper reaches of Ichamati. A similar observation was
reported on macroinvertebrates communities by Fisher
& Williams (2006) and Spyra & Strzelec (2013) where Gyraulus
sp. was found in all seasons.
During pre-monsoon and monsoon periods,
the maximum species diversity was noted in the upper reaches. Jana & Manna
(1995), Khalua et al. (2008) and Roy et al. (2008)
also demonstrated the benthic abundance during these periods. Benthic macroinvertebrate
density was high during both pre-monsoon and monsoon periods
which may be attributed to the availability of appropriately nutrient-rich
water and soft and organically rich bottom soil. Similar studies were
reported by Beauchard et al. (2003) on African rivers
and Li et al. (2012) on stream macroinvertebrates.
In this study the positive correlation between nutrients and organic matter
with benthic macroinvertebrate density supports the
observation. It was interesting to note that species like Segmentina,
Melanoides and Lamellidens,
were not found during the monsoons, probably due to increased water levels and
a relatively strong water current to unsettle the bottom substrate on which
these species were attached (Koperski 2011). In this study it was observed that the
species richness of freshwater Gastropoda depended on
the type of bottom substrate and the richness of aquatic macrophytes
(Lodge 1985; Perez 2004; Spyra 2010). The density of Gastropoda
was positively correlated with phosphate, nitrate, total
alkalinity, TDS, pH, organic carbon and organic matter (Table 6) and
supported by Pip (1987) and Williams & Gormally
(2009).
In middle-stream, a very
low species diversity comprising of two species of Mollusca (with one Gastropoda and one Bivalvia) and
only one Polychaeta (Neanthes
sp.) were observed. Polychaetes preferred fine to medium type of sandy bottom
with moderate abundance of admixtures of silt and clay (Al-khayat
2005). The middle-stream had a very
similar bottom type. Molluscan
diversity was meager probably due to the high flow of
river water and a particular bottom type (sand and clay). The Benthic macroinvertebrates
experienced threats by the changes in its habitats associated with pollution
and siltation. Moreover, the poor growth
of bottom fauna could be associated with frequent water level
fluctuations. The dependence of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna on a number of factors such as
physical nature of the substratum, depth, nutritive contents, degree of
stability and oxygen concentration of the water body (Barbour et al. 1999; Merz & Chan 2005; Braccia
& Voshell 2006) was reflected by the findings of
this investigation that in middle-stream ‑ substratum, depth,
nutrition and oxygen concentrations were not congenial for benthic macroinvertebrate diversity to flourish. This was supported
further by the negative correlation between density and phosphate as well as
oxygen concentrations studied. Presence
of-- Pila globosa
(Gastropoda) and Neanthes
sp. (Polychaeta) indicated the freshness of the
water (Perez 2004). Benthic macroinvertebrate in middle reaches were observed in the
highest concentration level during pre-monsoons probably due to the maximum
occurrence of Modiolus sp. (Bivalvia). It was
likely that the species utilized the elevated concentration of calcium in the
water during pre-monsoons contributing to the increase in the benthic macroinvertebrate density.
Meager existence of benthic macroinvertebrate
diversity in down-stream might be related to the depth of water, soaring water
current, increased siltation, anthropogenic disturbances and unstable
substratum (as noted by the studies of Kroncke &
Reiss (2010), Xu et al. (2014). Absence of macrobenthos
during monsoons was probably due to high turbulence and depth of water in the
down-stream. Moreover, increased anthropogenic activities (organic debris from
adjoining localities, ferry boats across the river, immersion of idols,
domestic daily activities, river bank occupation by factories like brick kilns
etc.) at this station caused substratum instability of macrobenthic
community (Leprieur et al. 2008). The destructive effects of anthropogenic
activities on different estuarine communities were recorded by Patricio & Marquis (2006); Dolbeth
et al. (2007); Geetha et al. (2010). The presence or absence of benthic macroinvertebrates could be a good indicator of both
chronic and episodic impact of human disturbances to river conditions (Hellawell 1986; Stanford & Spacie
1994; Pinel-Alloul et al. 1996; Gamlath
& Wijeyaratne 1997). The plausible reasons for
the complete absence of benthos at this site might be dominated by the silt in
the sediment (Cloern 2001; Bode & Varela
2006).
Hydrological conditions such as extreme
hard water and salinity alteration (due to freshwater inflow during monsoons)
and food availability were major factors affecting the community dynamics of
benthic invertebrates (Brucet et al. 2012).
Water temperature showed a positive
correlation with benthos density. During
the pre-monsoon period (summer: March–June) density of benthic macroinvertebrates were higher than the post-monsoon period
(winter: November–December) in all three sites presumably indicating that the
temperature had a positive influence on the benthic macroinvertebrate
community as noted by Hauer & Hill (1996) and
Sharma & Rawat (2009).
Water transparency was positively
correlated with the benthic invertebrates as also noted by Basu
et al. (2013). A significant positive
correlation was found between organic carbon content of soil, organic matter
and benthic invertebrate density. The
presence of aquatic vegetation in the study area supported the availability of
more organic matter (Bath et al. 1999; Rosenberg 2001; Mikulyuk
et al. 2011; Basu et al. 2013).
Community structure index is a measurement
for two distinct aspects of biological community: (i)
number of taxa (richness) and (ii) distribution of individuals among taxa
(evenness). Diversity indices depend on
the quality and availability of habitat (Barbour et al. 1999). Mason (1996) set diversity index <1 for
highly polluted, 1–3 for moderately polluted and >4 for unpolluted water
bodies. In up-stream the diversity index (Table 5) indicated moderately
polluted water and the presence of a rich habitat. In middle- and down- streams
the diversity index indicated more polluted water than up-stream. In this study, the evenness indices of all
three sites indicated that the taxa identified were consistently distributed
(Table 5) in all sites.
The results pointed out that benthic macroinvertebrate diversity was very poor in middle- and
down- streams but had a moderate population in up-stream. Structure of macrobenthic
population was mainly driven by seasonal variations, depth of water, water
current, habitat type, riverbed characteristics and
influence of anthropogenic interferences.
The macrophyte vegetated marginal habitats
supported greater species richness and abundance (up-stream) than non-vegetated
habitats (middle- and down- streams).
The Mollusca could be regarded as a bio-indicator species thus indicated
a good water condition of the river. It was evident from the investigations
that the seasonal changes in the hydrological parameters influenced the
community structure of the benthic invertebrates in river Ichamati.
REFERENCES
Al-Khayat, J.A. (2005). Some macrobenthic
invertebrates in the Qatari waters, Arabian Gulf. Qatar University Science Bulletin
25: 126–---------136.
APHA (2005). Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Waste Water - 21st Edition.
American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Baldigo, B.P., G.B. Lawrence, R.W. Bode, H.A. Simonin, K.M. Roy & A.J. Smith (2009). Impacts of acidification on macroinvertebrate
communities in streams of the western Adirondack mountains,
New York, USA. Ecological Indictors 9(2): 226–239; http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.04.004
Barbour,
M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder & J.B. Stribling (1999). Rapid
Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Wadeable Rivers: Periphyton,
Benthic Macro invertebrates and Fish - 2nd Edition. EPA 841-B-99-002, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water, Washington, D.C.
Barnes,
R.S.K., P. Callow & P.J.W. Olive (1988). The
invertebrates: A New Synthesis. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford, 582pp.
Barquin, J. & R.G. Beath
(2011). Down-stream changes in spring-fed stream
invertebrate communities: the effect of increased temperature range. Journal
of limnology 70(1): 134–146;
http://doi.org/10.3274/JL11-70-S1-10
Basu, A., S. Sengupta,
S. Dutta, A. Saha, P. Ghosh & S. Roy (2013). Studies on macreobenthic
organisms in relation to water parameters at east Calcutta wetlands. Journal of Environmental Biology 34: 733–737.
Bath,
K.S., H. Kaur & S.S. Dhillon
(1999). Correlation of Molluscs
with physico-chemical factors at Harike
Reservoir (Punjab). Indian Journal of Environmental
Science 3: 159–163.
Beauchard, O., J. Gagneur
& S. Brosse (2003). Macroinvertebrate richness patterns in North African
streams. Journal of Biogeography 30: 1821–1833.
Bode,
A.-O.M.T. & M. Varela (2006). Phytoplankton and macrophytes contributions
littoral food webs in the Galician upwelling estimated from stable isotopes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 318: 89–102.
Braccia, A. & J.R. Voshell
(2006). Environmental factors accounting for
benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage structure at the
sample scale in streams subjected to a gradient of cattle grazing. Hydrobiologia 573: 55–73.
Brraich, O.S. & R. Kaur
(2017). Temporal composition
and distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates in
wetlands. Current Science 112(1): 116–125; http://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v112/i01/116-125
Brucet, S., D. Boix,
L.W. Nathansen, X.D. Quintana, E. Jensen, D. Balayla, M. Meerhoff & E. Jeppesen (2012).
Effects of temperature, salinity and fish in structuring the macroinvertebrate community in shallow lakes: implications
for effects of climate change. PLoS ONE
7(2): e30877; http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030877
Carlisle,
D., M.R. Meador, S.R. Moulton & P.M. Ruhi (2007).
Estimation and application of indicator
value for common macro-invertebrates. Ecological
Indicator 7: 22–33; http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.09.005
Celik, K., N. Akbulut,
A. Akbulut & D. Ozatli
(2010). Macro zoobenthos
of lake Uluabat, Turkey, related to some physical and
chemical parameters. Pan-American Journal of Aquatic
Sciences 5(4): 520–529.
Cloern, J.E. (2001). Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication
problem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 210:
223–253.
Cogerino, l., B. Cellot
& M. Bournaud (1995). Microhabitat diversity and associated macroinvertebrates in aquatic banks of a large European
river. Hydrobiologia 304: 103–115.
Coleman,
N., W. Cuff, J. Moverley, A.S.H. Gason
& S. Heislers (2007). Depth, sediment type, biogeography and high species richness in
shallow-water benthos. Marine and Freshwater Research 58(3):
293–305; http://doi.org/10.1071/MF06098
Das,
M.K., M. Naskar, M.L. Mondal,
P.K. Srivastava , S. Dey & A. Rej (2012). Influence
of ecological factors on the patterns of fish species richness in tropical
Indian rivers. Acta Ichthyologica Et Piscatoria 42(1): 47–58; http://doi.org/10.3750/AIP2011.42.1.06
Degani, G., G.N. Herbest,
R. Ortal, H.J. Bromley, P. Levanon,
H. Glazman & Y. Regev
(1992). Faunal relationships
to abiotic factors along the river Dan in northern Israel. Hydrobiologia 246: 69–82.
Dolbeth, M.C., P.G. Ferreira, S.M. Verdelhos, T.D. Raffaelli &
M.A. Pardel (2007).
Anthropogenic and natural effects on a macrobenthic esturiane community over a 10 year
period. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54: 576–585.
Dudgeon,
D., A.H. Arthington, M.O. Gessner,
Z. Kawabata, D.J. Knowler, C. Lévêque, R.J. Naiman, A.H. Prieur-Richard, D. Soto, M.L. Stiassny
& C.A. Sullivan (2006). Freshwater biodiversity:
importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. Biological reviews
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 81(2): 163–182; http://doi.org/10.1017/S1464793105006950
Feldman, R.S. & E.F. Connor (1992). The relationship between pH and community
structure of invertebrates in streams of the Shenandoah National Park,
Virginia, U.S.A. Freshwater Biology 27(2): 261–276; http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.1992.tb00538.x
Fisher, M.R. & W.P. Williams (2006). A feasibility study to monitor the macroinvertebrate diversity of the River Nile using three
sampling methods. Hydrobiologia 56:137–147;
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-1262-6
Gamlath, G.A.R .K. & M.J.S. Wijeyaratne (1997). Indicator organisms of environmental condition in a lotic water
body in Srilanka. Srilanka Journal of
Aquatic Sciences 2: 121–129.
Geetha, P.N., T.A. Thasneem
& S.B. Nandan (2010). Macrobenthos and
its relation to ecosystem dynamics in the Cochin estuary. Lake 2010:
Wetlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change. Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, India. 22nd–24th December, 1–12 pp.
Hauer, F.R. & W.R. Hill (1996). Temperature, light and oxygenn,
pp. 103–117. In: Hauer, F.R.
& G.A. Lamberti (eds.). Methods
in Stream Ecology - 2rd Edition. San
Diego, Academic Press, 877pp.
Heck,
K.I., G. Hays & R.J. Orth (2003). Critical evaluation ofthe
nursery role hypothesis for seagrass meadows. Marine Ecology Progress Series 253: 123–136.
Hellawell, J.M. (1986). Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and Environmental
Management. Elsevier Applied Sciences Publishers, London, New York,
546pp.-
Idowu, E.O. & A.A.A. Ugwumba
(2005). Physical, chemical and
benthic faunal characteristics of a southern Nigeria reservoir. The Zoologist 3: 15–25.
Ikomi, R.B, F.O. Arimoro
& O.K. Odihirin (2005). Composition, distribution and abundance of macroinvetebrates of the upper reaches of River Ethiope, Delta State, Nigeria. The
Zoologist 3: 68–81.
Ingole B., N. Rodriguez & Z.A. Ansari (2002). Macro benthic
communities of the coastal waters of Dabhol, West
coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences
31(2): 93–99.
Nishat, B., S.K. Chakraborty,
M.E. Hasan & A.J.M.Z. Rahman
(2014). Rivers Beyond Borders: India
Bangladesh Trans-boundary River Atlas. Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India
Initiative, IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Drik publication, Dhaka, Bangladesh, xx+152pp.
Jana, B.B. & A.K. Manna (1995). Seasonal changes of benthic invertebrates in two tropical fish
ponds. Journal of Freshwater Biology 7(2):
129–136.
Jiang,
X.M., J. Xiong, J.J.W. Qiu,
J.M. Wu, J.W. Wang & Z.C. Xie (2010). Structure of macroinvertebrate
communities in relation to environmental variables in a subtropical Asian river
system. International Review of Hydrobiology 95:
42–57.
Johnson,
R.K., W. Goedkoop & L. Sandin
(2004). Spatial scale and
ecological relationships between the macroinvertebrate
communities of stony habitats of streams and lakes. Freshwater
Biology 49: 1179–1194.
Jun, Y.C., N.Y. Kim, S.H. Kim, Y.S. Park, D.S. Kong & S.J. Hwang
(2016). Spatial distribution of
benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in relation to
environmental variables in Korean Nationwide Streams. Water 8:
27; http://doi.org/10.3390/w8010027
Kagalou, I., G. Economidis,
I. Leonardos & C. Papaloukas
(2006). Assessment of a Mediterranean shallow
lentic ecosystem (Lake Pamvotis, Greece) using
benthic community diversity: Response to environmental parameters. Limnologica 36: 269–278.
Khalua, R.K., G. Chakravarty
& S.K. Chakraborty (2008). Community Structure of Macrobenthic
Mollusks of Three Contrasting Intertidal Belts of Midnapur Coast, West Bengal, India. Zoological Research in Human Welfare, Published-Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 484pp.
Kroncke, I & H. Reiss
(2010). Influence of macrofauna long-term natural variability on benthic indices
used in ecological quality assessment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(1):
58–68.
Koperski, P. (2011).
Diversity of freshwater macrobenthos and its use in
biological assessment: a critical review of current applications. Environmental
Review 19: 16–31; http://doi.org/10.1139/A10-023
Kumar,
R., H. Nesewann, G. Sharma, T. Li-Chun, A.K. Prabhakar & S.P. Roy (2013). Community structure of macrobenthic
invertebrates in the river Ganga in Bihar, India. Aquatic Ecoystem, Health
and Management 16(4): 385–394.
Lenat, D.R., D.L.S. Penrose & K.W. Eagles (1981). Variable effects of Sediment addition on stream
benthos. Hydrobiologia 79: 187–194.
Leprieur, F., O. Beauchard,
S. Blanchet, T. Oberdorff & S. Brosse (2008). Fish
invasions in the world’s river systems: when natural processes are blurred by
human activities. PLoS biology 6(12):
e28: http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060028
Li, F., N. Chung, M.J. Bae, Y.S. Kwon &
Y.S. Park (2012). Relationships between
stream macroinvertebrates and environmental variables
at multiple spatial scales. Freshwater Biology
57: 2107–2124.
Lind,
O.T. (1979). Handbook of Common Method in
limnology 2nd Edition, The C.V. Mosby Company, St. Louis,
USA, 136–145pp.
Lodge,
D.M. (1985). Macrophyte-gastropod
associations: observations and experiments on macrophyte
choice by gastropods. Freshwater Biology 15:
695–708.
Mancini,
L., P. Formichetti, J.G. Morgana, L.Tancioni,
A.M. D’Angelo, P. P.Danieli,
E. Pierdominici, M. Iaconelli
& P. Andreani (2004). Analysis of macrobenthic communities in
the river basins of Central Italy. Limnetica
23(3–4): 199–208.
Margalef, R. (1968). Perspectives in Ecological Theory. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
Mason,
C.F. (1996). Biology of
Freshwater Pollution. 3rd Edition. Longman,
England, 356pp.
Merz, J.R. & L.K.O. Chan (2005). Effects of gravel
augmentation on macroinvertebrate assemblages in a
regulated California river. River Research and Applications 21:
61–74; http://doi.org/10.1002/rra.819
Michael,
Q. (1977). Invertebrates of Streams and Rivers: A
Key to Identification. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
London, 84pp.
Milbrink, G. (1983). An
improved environmental index based on the relative abundance of Oligochaeta species. Hydrobiology 102: 89–97; http://doi.org/10.1007/BF00006072
Mikulyuk, A., S. Sharma, S.V. Egeren,
E. Erdmann, M.E. Nault & J. Hauxwell
(2011). The relative role of
environmental, spatial, and land-use patterns in explaining aquatic macrophyte community composition. Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 68: 1778–1789.
Mishra, A.S. & P. Nautiyal (2013). Functional composition
of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna in the plateau
rivers, Bundelkhand, central India. Journal
of Threatened Taxa 5(13): 4752–4758; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3226.4752-8
Mishra, A.S. & P. Nautiyal (2017). Canonical correspondence analysis for
determining distributional patterns of benthic macroinvertebrate
fauna in the lotic ecosystem. Indian
Journal of Ecology 44(4): 697–705.
Mittermeier, R.A. & C.G. Mittermeier
(1997). Megadiversity: earth’s biologically wealthiest nation, pp 1–140. In: McAllister, D.E., A.L. Hamilton & B. Harvery (eds.). Global Freshwater
Biodiversity - Vol. 11. Sea Wind, Cemex, Mexico City.
Mondal, I. & J. Bandyopadhyay
(2016). Physicochemical Analysis of Ichamati
River and Estimation of Soil Parameters using Geospatial Technology. Journal
of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series E 97(2): 151–158; http://doi.org/10.1007/s40034-016-0086-4
Moretti, M.S. & M. Callisto
(2005). Biomonitoring of benthic macro invertebrates in the middle Doce
river watershed. Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia
17(3): 267–281.
Nautiyal, P. & A.S. Mishra (2013). Variations in benthic macroinvertebratefauna
as indicator of land use in the Ken River, central India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 5(7): 4096–4105; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3211.4096-105
Nautiyal, P., A. S. Mishra, J. Verma
& A. Agrawal (2017). River
ecosystems of the Central Highland ecoregion: Spatial
distribution of benthic flora and fauna in the Plateau rivers (tributaries of
the Yamuna and Ganga) in Central India. Aquatic Ecosystem Health &
Management 20(1–2): 43–58; http://doi.org/10.1080/14634988.2017.1296324
Nelson, S.M. & D.M. Lieberman (2002). The influence of flow and other environmental factor
on benthic invertebrates in the Sacramento River, USA. Hydrobiologia 489: 117–129.
North
24 Parganas Dist Police
(2013). Know Your Police Station. Retrieved May
13, 2018, from http://n24pgspolice.in/home/police-station.php
.
Olenin, S. (1997). Benthic zonation of the Eastern Gotland Basin.
Netherlands Journal of Aquatic Ecology 30: 265–282; http://doi.org/10.1007/BF02085871
Patricio, J. & A.R. Marquis (2006). Mass balanced models of the food web in three areas
along gradient eutrophication in three areas along gradient eutrophication
symptoms in the South arm of the Mondege estuary
(Portugal). Ecological Modeling
197: 21–34; http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.03.008
Paul, S. & N.C. Nandi (2003). Studies
on intertidal macrobenthos of Hugli River in and
around Calcutta in relation to water and soil conditions. Records
of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. Occasional
Paper No. 213: 1–135.
Perez,
K.E. (2004). Planorbidae,
pp. 40–43. In: Perez K.E., S.A. Clark & C. Lydeard
(eds.). Freshwater Gastropod, Identification Workshop
“Showing your Shells” A Primer to Freshwater Gastropod Identification.
Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society, University
of Alabama,Tuscaloosa,
Alabama.
Pielou, E.C. (1966). The measurement of diversity in different types of biological
collections. Journal of Theoretical Biology 13: 131–144; http://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(66)90013-0
Pinel-Alloul, B., G.Methot, L. Lapierre & A. Willsie
(1996). Macrobenthic community as a biological indicator of ecological and
toxicological factors in Lake Saint-Francois (Quebec). Environmental Pollution 91: 65–87.
Pip, E. (1987). Species richness of freshwater gastropod communities
in Central North America. Journal
of Molluscan Studies 53(2): 163–170.
Pokorny´, J. & J. Kveˇt
(2004). Aquatic plants and lake ecosystems, pp.
309–340. In: O’Sullivan, P.E. & C.S. Reynolds (eds.). The
Lakes Handbook, Vol. 1. Limnology and
Limnetic Ecology. Blackwell, Malden, Massachusetts.
Principe, R.E. & M.C. Corrigliano
(2006). Benthic, drifting and
marginal macroinvertebrate assemblages in a low land
river: temporal and spatial variations and Size structure. Hydrobiologia 553(1): 303–317.
Rao, N.V.S. (1989). HandBook. Freshwater
Molluscs of India. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India.
Rosenberg, D.M. & V.H. Resh (1993). Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Chapman and Hall,
New York. 488pp.
Rosenberg,
R. (2001). Marine benthic faunal
successional stages and related sedimentary activity. Scientia Marina 65: 107–119; http://doi.org/10.3989/scimar.2001.65s2107
Roy,
M., A. Dey, S. Banerjee & N.C. Nandi (2008). Molluscan macrobenthic diversity of brackishwater wetlands in West Bengal. Zoological Research in Human Welfare. Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, 25–34pp.
Roy,
S. & A. Gupta (2010). Molluscan
diversity in river Barak and its tributaries, Assam, India. Assam University Journal of Science and Technology: Biological and
Environmental Science 5(1): 109–113.
Sandin, L. (2003).
Benthic macroinvertebrates in Swedish streams:
Community structure, taxon richness, and environmental relations. Ecography
26: 269–282.
Schultz, R. & E. Dibble (2012).
Effects of invasive macrophytes on freshwater fish
and macroinvertebrate communities: the role of
invasive plant traits. Hydrobiologia 84(1):
1–14; http://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-011-0978-8
Shannon,
C.F. & W. Weiner (1964). The
Mathematical Theory of Communications. The
University of Illinois Press, Urbana, USA.
Sharma, I. & R. Dhanze (2012). Evaluation of macrobenthic fauna in hill stream environment of western
Himalaya, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(9): 2875–2882; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o2725.2875-82
Sharma, R.C. & J.S. Rawat (2009). Monitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicator for assessing the health of wetlands: A case
study in the central Himalayas, India. Ecological
Indicators 9: 118–128.
Simpson,
E.H. (1949). Measurement of
diversity. Nature 16: 688
Simpson
K.W., R.W. Bode & J.R. Colquhoun
(1985). The macroinvertebrate fauna of an
acid-stressed headwater stream system in the Adirondack Mountains, New York.
Freshwater Biology 15: 673–681.
Soszka, G.J. (1975). Ecological relationships between invertebrates and submerged macrophytes in the lake littoral. Ekologia
Polska 23: 393–415.
Spyra, A. (2010).
Environmental factors influencing the occurrence of freshwater snails in
woodland water bodies. Biologia 65(4):
697–703; http://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-010-0063-1
Spyra, A. & M.l. Strzelec (2013). Occurrence and morphological variability of Gyraulus
crista (Gastropoda: Pulmonata:
Planorbidae) on different types of substratum in
woodland ponds. Biologia 68(4):
679–686; http://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-013-0197-z
Srivastava, V.K. (2007). River ecology in India: present status and future research strategy for
management and conservation. Proceedings of the Indian
National Science Academy 73(4): 255–269.
Stanford,
L.L. & A. Spacie (1994). Biological Monitoring of Aquatic System.
CRC Press, London, 400pp.
Strayer, D.L. & D. Dudgeon (2010). Freshwater biodiversity conservation:
recent progress and future challenges. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 29(1): 344–358; http://doi.org/10.1899/08-171.1
Tagliapietra, D. & M. Sigovini
(2010). Benthic fauna: collection and
identification of macrobenthic invertebrates. NEAR
Curriculum in Natural Environmental Science, Terre et Environnement 88: 253–261.
Tall, L., A. Armellin, B. Pinel-Alloul, G. Méthot
& C. Hudon (2016). Effects of hydrological
regime, landscape features, and environment on macroinvertebrates
in St. Lawrence River wetlands. Hydrobiologia 778(1): 221–241.
Timm, H., M. Ivsk
& T. Mols (2001). Response of macroinvertebrates and water
quality to long-term decrease in organic pollution in some Estonian streams
during 1990–1998. Hydrobiologia 464: 153–164.
Timms, B.V. (2006). A study of the benthic communities of twenty lakes in the South
Island, New Zealand. Freshwater Biology 12:
123–138.
Victor,
R. & A.E. Ogbeibu (1985). Macrobenthic invertebrates of a stream flowing through farmland in Southern
Nigeria. Environmental Pollution (Series A) 39:
339–349.
Wetzel,
R.G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems,
3rd Edition. Academic Press, San Diego,
California.
Williams, C.D. & M.J. Gormally (2009). Spatio-temporal and environmental gradient effects on Mollusc communities
in a unique wetland habitat (Turloughs). Wetlands
29(3): 854–865; http://doi.org/10.1672/08-185.1
Xu, M., Z. Wang, X. Duan
& B. Pan (2014). Effects
of pollution on macroinvertebrates and water quality bioassessment. Hydrobiologia 729(1): 247–259.
Zeybek, M., H. Kalyoncu & Ö.O. Ertan (2012). Species composition and distribution of Mollusca in relation to
water quality. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 12:
719–727; http://doi.org/10.4194/1303-2712-v12_3_21