Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 November 2018 | 10(13): 12805–12816

Avian fauna of Amboli Ghat, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra State, India

Varun Satose ¹, Vikrant Choursiya ², Rakesh Deulkar ³ & Sasikumar Menon ⁴

^1,4 Institute for Advanced Training and Research in Interdisciplinary Sciences, Sion, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400022, India

² Zoology Department, Bhavan’s College, Andheri, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400058, India

³ No. 87, Amboli (Bazaar), Sawantwadi, Sindhudurg, Maharashtra 416510, India

¹ vari.devil@gmail.com, ² madscientist.wilderness@gmail.com (corresponding author), ³ rakeshdeulkar5@gmail.com, ⁴ spmtdmlab@gmail.com 

doi: https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2886.10.13.12805-12816 | ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:36EC754D-945F-4C19-9DF4-13EA9DA86E5F

Editor: R. Jayapal, SACON, Coimbatore, India. Date of publication: 26 November 2018 (online & print)

Manuscript details: Ms # 2886 | Received 19 March 2017 | Final received 23 October 2018 | Finally accepted 31 October 2018

Citation: Satose, V., V. Choursiya, R. Deulkar & S. Menon (2018). Avian fauna of Amboli Ghat, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra State, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(13): 12805–12816; https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2886.10.13.12805-12816

Copyright: © Satose et al. 2018. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.

Funding: It was a self funded project. No funding agency involved.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Dr. Parvish Pandya, Pranad Patil, Shashank Dalvi, and Saurabh Sawant for their valuable contributions towards the checklist and preparation of the manuscript. We would also like to thank Hemant Ogale and Malabar Nature Conservation Club for their immense help during the fieldwork in the study area.

Abstract: The present report puts forth a systematic checklist of bird species observed at Amboli Ghat in Maharashtra from 2009 to 2012, along with information on their status. A total of 208 species were recorded, which is around 15% of bird species of the Indian subcontinent. A family-wise analysis showed that the families Accipitridae and Muscicapidae (14 species each) followed by Ardeidae dominated the avifauna of the region. The study also revealed that the area consisted of 11 species of birds that are classified under Near Threatened category and two under Vulnerable category of IUCN. This study highlights the urgent need to conserve the biodiversity-rich area of Amboli Ghat with long-term plans.

Keywords: Amboli, avian fauna, diversity, endemic, Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats along the western coast of peninsular India is one of the most ecologically significant biological regions of the world. These hill ranges are recognized as a unique biogeographic province (Mani 1974), a global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000), and as one of the 200 most important eco-regions of the world (Olson & Dinerstein 1998). Amboli Ghat lies in the Sahyadri Hills of the Western Ghats in the Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra State, India. It is located at 15.962⁰N–73.997⁰E and has an average altitude of approximately 690m. The highest point is 1,100m and the lowest point is 166m. The terrain is undulating with steep escarpments and dense forests. There are three well-defined seasons in Amboli: the monsoon spanning from June to around mid-November, the winter from mid-November to February, and the summer, from March to May. It is the wettest place in Maharashtra State with an average annual precipitation of 7500mm. The plant life in Amboli is extremely rich since the climatic conditions give rise to a wide range of habitats. The habitats range from the tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, subtropical broadleaf hill forests, tropical dry deciduous forests, tropical thorn vegetation, grasslands, and agricultural lands to wetlands. The wetlands are mainly formed by the collection of water from streams in abandoned agricultural lands. In general, the vegetation turns drier as one moves from west to east (into the rain shadow region) across the hills. Lower elevations on the eastern region receive less than 1,200mm of annual rainfall and contain tropical dry deciduous and thorny forests, with tropical moist deciduous forests in more well-watered areas (Champion & Seth 1968). With an increase in elevation, tropical semi-evergreen rainforests appear along the higher slopes and ridges. The western region of the hills tends to have mostly tropical moist deciduous forests with wet evergreen forests at lower elevations. The former gives way to the latter type as one climbs higher. The forest is mainly fragmented and the semi-evergreen forest patches occur in isolated pockets.

In less than five years, four new faunal species were described and reported from Amboli. A species of toad, Xanthophryne tigerinus, was recently described as endemic to Amboli (Biju et al. 2009). Amboli was reported as one of the type localities of a species of frog Pseudophilautes amboli (Biju & Bossuyt 2009), a new species of coral snake Calliophis castoe (Smith et al. 2012), and a new species of colubrid Dendrelaphis girii (Vogel & Rooijen 2011) . Other snakes like Ornate Flying Snake and Brown Vine Snake were also sighted in this region.

Birds are considered as useful biological indicators because they are ecologically versatile and live in all kinds of habitats. Extensive documentation of avian fauna of various regions of the Western Ghats and Maharashtra are available. Prasad (2003) listed about 450 bird species from western Maharashtra, Abdulali (1981) listed 540 bird species from Maharashtra, and Gole (1998) studied bird species of Sahyadri,; documentation can also be found in Ranjit et al. (1990), Lainer (2004), Padhye et al. (2007), Lawate & Mule (2008), and Kachare et al. (2011). A systematic study on the avian fauna of Amboli Ghat is wanting. The aim of our study was to explore the nature of bird assemblage in various macrohabitat types in and around Amboli Ghat. The finding of this study can provide baseline data for intensive studies in the future. The study also highlights the ecological significance of this highly biodiverse spot in the Western Ghats of India.

Methods

Study area

An area of around 54km² covering locations like Amboli Town, Papdi, Malai, Chaukul, Mahadevgarh, Parpoli, and adjoining areas (Fig. 1), was explored for the study since each zone varies in its landscape type. In addition to the slope of the valley of Amboli Ghat, this study also included areas of lower hilly terrains, as the valley is surrounded by hills on almost all sides. The present study explores areas used for agriculture and human settlements as well as natural habitats such as forest patches, grasslands, streambanks, and scrublands. Locations around the collection of large wetlands near Papdi were also investigated. Habitat details of the above-mentioned locations are as follows:

1) Papdi (15.888⁰N & 74.0372⁰E) – a mostly flat terrain with a slightly undulating land, agricultural fields, and streams present with temporary marshes during monsoon and early winter.

2) Malai Forest (15.941⁰N & 74.001⁰E) - dense evergreen forest.

3) Chaukul Road (15.943⁰N & 74.031⁰E) – a flat terrain covered with vegetation during monsoon and dry scrub in late winter and summer.

4) Amboli Town (15.966⁰N & 74.004⁰E) - human settlements near Amboli reserve forest.

5) Mahadevgarh Road (15.967⁰N & 73.990⁰E) - evergreen forest cover with sporadic open grassland patches.

6) Amboli Ghat (15.934⁰N & 73.990⁰E) - steep escarpments with moist deciduous and evergreen forests.

7) Parpoli (15.950⁰N & 73.975⁰E) - foothills of Amboli receiving maximum rainfall in the study area. The short grown vegetation remains submerged under water till early winter. The remaining area is covered by evergreen forests.

Bimonthly surveys were carried out in the selected areas of various habitats from March 2009 to March 2012. The areas were surveyed using binoculars and digital cameras for documenting bird species. Direct observations and noting of species sighted were made by walking on the roads and village tracks and through grasslands and agriculture areas. Monitoring of areas was done in the morning from 6:00 to 10:00 hr as well as in the evening from 15:00 to 19:00 hr. Visits were also made in the afternoons and late evenings to check the activities of the avian fauna at different times. Birds were identified using widely accepted field guides like Ali & Ripley (1983) and Grimmett et al. (1998,2011). For taxonomy, species sequence, and nomenclature, we followed Praveen et al. (2016).

The status of birds was assigned based on the following criteria:

1) Resident - if a bird was seen all throughout the year (not necessarily nesting).

2) Winter visitor - if a bird was seen only during the period from December to February.

3) Summer visitor - if a bird was seen only during the period from March to May.

The birds were assigned strictly with reference to the study area on the basis of presence or absence method. The birds that showed irregular trends of sighting and population fluctuations (non-seasonal) were placed under uncertain status. Current status of threatened categories was adopted from IUCN Red list (IUCN 2016).

Results

A total of 208 species was recorded during the study (Table 1), constituting around 15% of the total species listed in the Indian subcontinent by Grimmett et al. (2011). Birds from 64 families were recorded. Family-wise analysis showed that the families Accipitridae and Muscicapidae (14 species each) followed by Ardeidae (10 species) dominated the avian fauna, indicating a healthy bird diversity in the region. Out of the total species encountered, analysis of data revealed that 165 species were residents, 38 species were winter visitors, two species were summer visitors, and the remaining species have an uncertain status. The status of three species, European Roller Coracias garrulus, Asian Pied Starling Gracupica contra, and Green Avadavat Amandava formosa, was considered uncertain as they showed irregular trends of sighting and population fluctuations (non-seasonal). Since there are no habitats appropriate for Green Avadavat in the study area, the individuals sighted could be those escaped from cages.A comparative graph was prepared to see the differences in avian faunal diversity in the locations in the study area which revealed Parpoli region with maximum number of species (181 species of birds) (Figs. 2 & 3). A few bird species like Pompadour Green Pigeon Treron pompadora, Grey-bellied Cuckoo Cacomantis passerinus, Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris, Blue-faced Malkoha Phaenicophaeus viridirostris, Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker Dinopium benghalense, Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker Dendrocopos mahrattensis, White-naped Woodpecker Chrysocolaptes festivus, Heart-spotted Woodpecker Hemicircus canente and Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra (Table 1) were sighted only at the low-lying well-wooded region of Parpoli in the study area. Studies show that habitats with structurally complex matrices have greater potential for supporting the populations of forest birds than open areas such as pastures (Raman 2006). Sixty-one species of birds are recognized as endemic to India (Praveen et al. 2016), of which 13 were sighted in the study area. A few birds that showed local seasonal migration due to heavy rainfall in the higher altitude areas of Amboli.

Based on the present study, it can be concluded that there are 11 species of birds in the study area that are struggling for their existence throughout their distributional range and therefore can be placed under threat categories as identified by IUCN (2016). These species are the Vulnerable Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus, Nilgiri Wood Pigeon Columba elphinstonii (observed roosting), and Green Avadavat (observed roosting) and the Near Threatened Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus, Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster, Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, River Tern Sterna aurantia, Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis, Malabar Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus, and Grey-headed Bulbul Brachypodius priocephalus (observed feeding and roosting). Of these, Grey-headed Bulbul and Nilgiri Wood Pigeon are endemic to the Western Ghats. Vultures were not encountered in the present study.

Table 1. A systematic checklist of bird species of Amboli Ghat, Maharashtra State, India

	Family	Scientific name	Common name	Status	Sighting location
1	Anatidae	Anas poecilorhynca	Indian Spot-billed Duck	R	AR
2	Phasianidae	Pavo cristatus	Indian Peafowl	R	AR
3		Perdicula asiatica	Jungle Bush Quail	R	AR
4		Gallus sonneratii	Grey Junglefowl	R, EI	AR
5		Galloperdix spadicea	Red Spurfowl	R, EI	AR
6	Podicipedidae	Tachybaptus ruficollis	Little Grebe	R	PP
7	Columbidae	Columba livia	Rock Pigeon	R	AR
8		C. elphinstonii	Nilgiri Wood Pigeon	R, EI	AT
9		Streptopelia orientalis	Oriental Turtle Dove	R	AR
10		S. chinensis	Spotted Dove	R	AR
11		Treron pompadora	Pompadour Green Pigeon	R	PR
12		T. phoenicoptera	Yellow-legged Green Pigeon	R	AR
13		Chalcophaps indica	Emerald Dove	R	AR
14	Podargidae	Batrachostomus moniliger	Sri Lankan Frogmouth	R	CR, ML, MG
15	Caprimulgidae	Caprimulgus indicus	Grey Nightjar	R	AR
16		C. atripennis	Jerdon’s Nightjar	R	CR
17		C. affinis	Savanna Nightjar	R	AT, CR
18	Apodidae	Hemiprocne coronata	Crested Treeswift	R	PR
19		Apus pacificus	Fork-tailed Swift	W	AR
20		A. affinis	Indian House Swift	R	AR
21	Cuculidae	Centropus sinensis	Greater Coucal	R	AR
22		Phaenicophaeus viridirostris	Blue-faced Malkoha	R	PR
23		Clamator jacobinus	Pied Cuckoo	S	AR
24		Eudynamys scolopaceus	Asian Koel	R	AR
25		Cacomantis passerinus	Grey-bellied Cuckoo	R	PR
26		Surniculus lugubris	Drongo Cuckoo	R	PR
27		Hierococcyx varius	Common Hawk Cuckoo	R	AR
28		Cuculus canorus	Eurasian Cuckoo	W	AR
29	Rallidae	Rallina eurizonoides	Slaty-legged Crake	R	CR
30		Zapornia pusilla	Ballion’s Crake	W	PP
31		Amaurornis phoenicurus	White-breasted Waterhen	R	AR
32	Ciconiidae	Ciconia episcopus	Woolly-necked Stork	R	PP
33		Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus	Black-necked Stork	R	PP
34	Ardeidae	Ixobrychus cinnamoneus	Cinnamon Bittern	R	PP, AT
35		Nycticorax nycticorax	Black-crowned Night Heron	R	AR
36		Butorides striata	Striated Heron	R	PP
37		Ardeola grayii	Indian Pond Heron	R	AR
38		Bubulcus ibis	Cattle Egret	R	AR
39		Ardea cinerea	Grey Heron	W	PP, AT
40		A. purpurea	Purple Heron	R	PP
41		A. alba	Greater Egret	R	AR
42		A. intermedia	Median Egret	R	AR
43		Egretta garzetta	Little Egret	R	AR
44	Threskiornithidae	Threskiornis melanocephalus	Black-headed Ibis	R	PP
45	Phalacrocoracidae	Microcarbo niger	Little Cormorant	R	AR
46	Anhingidae	Anhinga melanogaster	Oriental Darter	R	PP
47	Charadriidae	Vanellus malabaricus	Yellow-wattled Lapwing	W	AT
48		V. indicus	Red-wattled Lapwing	R	AR
49	Scolopacidae	Actitis hypoleucos	Common Sandpiper	W	AR
50		Tringa totanus	Common Redshank	W	PP
51		T. glareola	Wood Sandpiper	W	AR
52	Turnicidae	Turnix suscitator	Barred Buttonquail	R	AR
53	Laridae	Sterna aurantia	River Tern	R	AR
54	Accipitridae	Elanus caeruleus	Black-winged Kite	R	AR
55		Pernis ptilorhynchus	Oriental Honey Buzzard	R	AR
56		Spilornis cheela	Crested Serpent Eagle	R	AR
57		Circaetus gallicus	Short-toed Snake Eagle	R	AR
58		Ictinaetus malaiensis	Black Eagle	R	AR
59		Aquila rapax	Tawny Eagle	R	AT
60		A. fasciata	Bonelli’s Eagle	R	AR
61		Hieraaetus pennatus	Booted Eagle	W	AR
62		Circus macrourus	Pallid Harrier	W	AR
63		C. pygargus	Montagu’s Harrier	W	CR, PP
64		Accipiter badius	Shikra	R	AR
65		Haliastur indus	Brahminy Kite	R	AR
66		Milvus migrans	Black Kite	R	AR
67		Butastur teesa	White-eyed Buzzard	R	AR
68	Tytonidae	Tyto alba	Common Barn Owl	R	AR
69	Strigidae	Athene brama	Spotted Owlet	R	AR
70		Strix leptogrammica	Brown Wood Owl	R	AR
71		Bubo bengalensis	Indian Eagle Owl	R	AR
72		Ketupa zeylonensis	Brown Fish Owl	R	AR
73	Bucerotidae	Buceros bicornis	Great Hornbill	R	AR
74		Anthracoceros coronatus	Malabar Pied Hornbill	R	AR
75		Ocyceros griseus	Malabar Grey Hornbill	R, EI	AR
76		O. birostris	Indian Grey Hornbill	R	AR
77	Upupidae	Upupa epops	Common Hoopoe	R	AR
78	Picidae	Picumnus innominatus	Speckled Piculet	R	ML
79		Hemicircus canente	Heart-spotted Woodpecker	R	PR
80		Dinopium benghalense	Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker	R	PR, ML
81		Micropternus brachyurus	Rufous Woodpecker	R	PR
82		Chrysocolaptes festivus	White-naped Woodpecker	R	PR
83		Dendrocopos mahrattensis	Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker	R	PR
84	Ramphastidae	Psilopogon zeylanica	Brown-headed Barbet	R	PR
85		P. viridis	White-cheeked Barbet	R, EI	AR
86	Meropidae	Merops orientalis	Green Bee-eater	R	AR
87		M. leschenaulti	Chestnut-headed Bee-eater	R	AR
88	Coraciidae	Coracias benghalensis	Indian Roller	R	AR
89		C. garrulus	European Roller	UC	CR
90	Alcedinidae	Ceyx erithaca	Oriental Dwarf Kingfisher	R	AT, CR, ML
91		Alcedo meninting	Blue-eared Kingfisher	R	PR, AT
92		A. atthis	Common Kingfisher	R	AR
93		Ceryle rudis	Pied Kingfisher	R	AR
94		Pelargopis capensis	Stork-billed Kingfisher	R	AR
95		Halcyon smyrnensis	White-throated Kingfisher	R	AR
96		H. pileata	Black-capped Kingfisher	R	PP
97	Falconidae	Falco tinnunculus	Common Kestrel	W	AR
98		F. peregrinus	Peregrine Falcon	R	AR
99	Psittaculidae	Psittacula cyanocephala	Plum-headed Parakeet	R	AR
100		P. krameri	Rose-ringed Parakeet	R	AR
101		Loriculus vernalis	Vernal Hanging Parrot	R	AR
102	Pittidae	Pitta brachyura	Indian Pitta	W	AR
103	Campephagidae	Pericrocotus cinnamomeus	Small Minivet	R	PR
104		P. flammeus	Scarlet Minivet	R	AR
105		Lalage melanoptera	Black-headed Cuckooshrike	R	PR
106	Oriolidae	Oriolus xanthornus	Black-hooded Oriole	R	PR
107		O. kundoo	Indian Golden Oriole	W	AR
108	Artamidae	Artamus fuscus	Ashy Woodswallow	R	PR
109	Vangidae	Hemipus picatus	Bar-winged Flycatcher Shrike	R	PR
110		Tephrodornis virgatus	Large Woodshrike	R	MG, PR
111		T. pondicerianus	Common Woodshrike	R	PR
112	Aegithinidae	Aegithina tiphia	Common Iora	R	AR
113	Dicruridae	Dicrurus macrocercus	Black Drongo	R	AR
114		D. leucophaeus	Ashy Drongo	R	AR
115		D. caerulescens	White-bellied Drongo	R	PR
116		D. paradiseus	Greater Racket-tailed Drongo	R	PR
117	Rhipiduridae	Rhipidura aureola	White-browed Fantail	R	PR
118		R. albicollis	White-throated Fantail	R	PR
119	Laniidae	Lanius schach	Long-tailed Shrike	R	AR
120		L. vittatus	Bay-backed Shrike	R	AR
121	Corvidae	Dendrocitta vagabunda	Rufous Treepie	R	PR
122		Corvus splendens	House Crow	R	AR
123		C. macrorhynchos	Large-billed Crow	R	AR
124	Monarchidae	Hypothymis azurea	Black-naped Monarch	R	AR
125		Terpsiphone paradisi	Indian Paradise-flycatcher	R	AR
126	Dicaeidae	Dicaeum agile	Thick-billed Flowerpecker	R	AR
127		D. erythrorhynchos	Pale-billed Flowerpecker	R	AR
128		D. concolor	Plain Flowerpecker	R	AR
129	Nectariniidae	Arachnothera longirostra	Little Spiderhunter	R	PR
130		Leptocoma zeylonica	Purple-rumped Sunbird	R	AR
131		L. minima	Crimson-backed Sunbird	R, EI	AR
132		Cinnyris asiaticus	Purple Sunbird	R	AR
133		Aethopyga vigorsii	Vigors’s Sunbird	R, EI	AR
134	Irenidae	Irena puella	Asian Fairy Bluebird	R	PR
135		Chloropsis aurifrons	Golden-fronted Leafbird	R	AR
136	Ploceidae	Ploceus philippinus	Baya Weaver	R	AR
137	Estrildidae	Amandava formosa	Green Avadavat*	UC, EI	AT
138		Euodice malabarica	Indian Silverbill	R	PR
139		Lonchura striata	White-rumped Munia	R	AR
140		L. punctulata	Scaly-breasted Munia	R	AR
141		L. malacca	Black-headed Munia	R	AR
142	Passeridae	Passer domesticus	House Sparrow	R	AR
143		Gymnoris xanthocollis	Yellow-throated Sparrow	R	PR
144	Motacillidae	Dendronanthus indicus	Forest Wagtail	W	ML, MG, CR
145		Anthus rufulus	Paddyfield Pipit	R	AR
146		Motacilla cinerea	Grey Wagtail	W	AR
147		M. citreola	Citrine Wagtail	W	AR
148		M. maderaspatensis	White-browed Wagtail	W	AR
149		M. alba	White Wagtail	W	AR
150	Fringillidae	Erythrina erythrina	Common Rosefinch	W	AR
151	Paridae	Parus cinereus	Cinereous Tit	R	PR
152		P. xanthogenys	Black-lored Tit	R	AR
153	Alaudidae	Galerida malabarica	Malabar Lark	R, EI	AR
154	Cisticolidae	Prinia hodgsonii	Grey-breasted Prinia	R	PR
155		P. socialis	Ashy Prinia	R	AR
156		P. inornata	Plain Prinia	R	AR
157		Orthotomus sutorius	Common Tailorbird	R	AR
158	Acrocephalidae	Acrocephalus dumetorum	Blyth's Reed Warbler	W	AR
159		A. agricola	Paddyfield Warbler	W	AR
160	Hirundinidae	Cecropis daurica	Red-rumped Swallow	R	AR
161		Hirundo smithii	Wire-tailed Swallow	R	AR
162		H. rustica	Barn Swallow	R	AR
163		Ptyonoprogne concolor	Dusky Crag Martin	R	AR
164	Pycnonotidae	Hypsipetes leucocephalus	Black Bulbul	R	AR
165		Pycnonotus melanicterus	Flame-throated Bulbul	R	PR, GT
166		P. jocosus	Red-whiskered Bulbul	R	AR
167		P. cafer	Red-vented Bulbul	R	AR
168		Brachypodius priocephalus	Grey-headed Bulbul	R, EI	AR
169		Acritillas indica	Yellow-browed Bulbul	R	AR
170	Phylloscopidae	Phylloscopus collybita	Common Chiffchaff	W	AR
171		P. tytleri	Tytler’s Leaf Warbler	W	PR
172		P. affinis	Tickell's Leaf Warbler	W	PR, ML
173		Seicercus nitidus	Green Leaf Warbler	W	AR
174		S. trochiloides	Greenish Leaf Warbler	W	AR
175	Sylviidae	Curruca crassirostris	Eastern Orphean Warbler	W	PR
176		C. curruca	Lesser Whitethroat	W	PR
177		Chrysomma sinense	Yellow-eyed Babbler	R	PR
178	Zosteropidae	Zosterops palpebrosus	Oriental White-eye	R	PR
179	Timaliidae	Pomatorhinus horsfieldii	Indian Scimitar Babbler	R	AR
180		Dumetia hyperythra	Tawny-bellied Babbler	R	AR
181		Rhopocichla atriceps	Dark-fronted Babbler	R	PR
182	Pellorneidae	Pellorneum ruficeps	Puff-throated Babbler	R	AR
183	Leiothrichidae	Alcippe poioicephala	Quaker Tit Babbler	R	AR
184		Argya malcolmi	Large Grey Babbler	R	AT
185		A. subrufa	Rufous Babbler	R, EI	AR
186		Turdoides striata	Jungle Babbler	R	AR
187	Sturnidae	Pastor roseus	Rosy Starling	W	AR
188		Gracupica contra	Asian Pied Starling	UC	AR
189		Sturnia pagodarum	Brahminy Starling	R	AR
190		Acridotheres tristis	Common Myna	R	AR
191		A. fuscus	Jungle Myna	R	AR
192		Gracula religiosa	Hill Myna	R	AR
193	Muscicapidae	Copsychus saularis	Oriental Magpie Robin	R	AR
194		Kittacincla malabaricus	White-rumped Shama	R	AR
195		Muscicapa dauurica	Asian Brown Flycatcher	W	AR
196		Cyornis pallidipes	White-bellied Blue Flycatcher	R, EI	CR, ML, PR, MG
197		C. tickelliae	Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher	R	AR
198		C. rubeculoides	Blue-throated Flycatcher	W	MG
199		Eumyias thalassinus	Verditer Flycatcher	W	AR
200		Larvivora brunnea	Indian Blue Robin	W	AR
201		Myophonus horsfieldii	Malabar Whistling Thrush	R, EI	AR
202		Ficedula parva	Red-breasted Flycatcher	W	ML, PR
203		Monticola cinclorhynchus	Blue-capped Rock Thrush	W	ML, PR
204		M. solitarius	Blue Rock Thrush	W	AR
205		Saxicola maurus	Siberian Stonechat	W	CR, PR
206		S. caprata	Pied Bushchat	R	AR
207	Turdidae	Geokichla citrina	Orange-headed Thrush	R	AR
208		Turdus simillimus	Indian Blackbird	S	AR

EI - endemic to India (from Praveen et al. 2016), * - sighted once.

Abbreviations for location: PR - Parpoli region, GT - Ghat region, AT - Amboli Town, CR - Chaukul Road, ML - Malai region, PP - Papdi region, MG - Mahadevgarh region, AR - all regions

Discussion

A list with authentic records reflects the true natural diversity of the avian fauna of any region. For taxa that are widespread or migrating, records in such lists form an essential part of the information that can be used to map their global distribution and seasonal movements. The Amboli Ghat area still provides some potential habitats for the declining population of many bird species. During the breeding season, Grey-headed Bulbuls were observed foraging in areas of Amboli Ghat dominated by sub-canopy trees bearing fruits. Fruit availability is also an important factor that decides the breeding season of this species (Balakrishnan 2011). The occurrence of Malabar Grey Hornbill can be attributed to the retention of fruits in the canopy, which provides food for the species (Raman & Mudappa 2003). Open areas are of utmost importance for bird populations as these areas provide better visibility for vigilance against predators and free movement for food procurement (Desai & Shanbhag 2012). It is the need of the hour to monitor these areas systematically in the rapidly changing environment with a focused study on the status, distribution, and conservation of the avian fauna of the region, which can be achieved only through strengthening public participation species.

One of the problems faced by Amboli Ghat in the recent years is the disturbance caused by humans along with deforestation for plantation, development, and mining. Changes in vegetation components could affect the availability of food resources and microclimatic conditions, which could then affect the richness and abundance of bird species (Johns 1991).

Animals in protected areas may face interference in their daily activities due to tourists and their associated activities. Tourism in protected areas can have negative influences on animal populations, as tourists often seek out rare or spectacular species during sensitive times such as breeding or nesting (Knight & Cole 1995). Where human traffic is frequent, species withdraw, change behaviour, or become habituated to human presence (Griffiths & van Schaik 1993). During the current study, Blue-capped Rock Thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus, Yellow-browed Bulbul Acritillas indica, and Quaker Tit Babbler Alcippe poioicephala were found feeding on garbage left by tourists.

Amboli Ghat is visited extensively by tourists and most of the tourist activities are concentrated around the Amboli Waterfall on State Highway 121 on the outskirts of Amboli Town. Good connectivity by roads to Karnataka, Goa, and the rest of Maharashtra State results in about 15,000 tourists visiting Amboli during weekends between July and September. During this period, the roadsides are littered without care. During the study period, it was revealed that around 20,000 vehicles pass through the study area, mainly Amboli Town on State Highway 121, which results in a number of roadkills and affects the feeding and nesting of birds. It was found that species like Oriental Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx erithaca at Amboli are vehemently sought after by photographers and their enthusiasm has disturbed some of their favourite nesting sites. There are three main motorable roads in Amboli Ghat area. During monsoon, an average of around 24 roadkills of animals, mainly composing of reptiles and amphibians, are recorded per day. Most of these reptile and amphibian species were from the Endangered category of the IUCN Red Data Book (IUCN 2016) and were observed on all the motorable roads each day during the study period. The strategy of biodiversity conservation is based on applying methods of protection in a specified area. Tourism development must be carefully managed to avoid turning Amboli Ghat into yet another tourist town where bottles, wrappers, plastics, and billboards dominate the landscape. Though ecotourism is capable of generating high revenue for natural areas that need protection, planning and development of infrastructure pertaining to tourism, its marketing should focus on conservation of nature, minimizing negative visitor impact, and involvement and employment of local populations in all aspects of business operations. Commercialization programs should have policies to meet higher social and environmental goals like building ecolodges powered by alternative energy resources and allowing travellers to stay in relative comfort while having magnificent wildlife-viewing from their doorsteps, which minimally impacts the local environment.

The following management strategies can be implemented at Amboli Ghat (Wood 2002):

1) Provide adequate budget to conserve popular tourist areas and earmark tourism fees for conservation.

2) Tourism businesses should pay impact fees that should fund infrastructure for solid waste treatment, sewage treatment, electricity, water and tourists must receive clear incentives for conserving water and electricity.

3) Environmental impact monitoring programs should be regularly implemented.

4) Well-managed trails and camping areas should be clearly marked with rules for low-impact use.

5) Restrictions should be in place for the type of vehicles permitted in specific zones, speed limits, dumping of waste, and off-road driving.

6) Training programs should be initiated at local levels to provide local inhabitants with the opportunity to run their own businesses.

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