Vertebrate fauna of the
Chambal River Basin, with emphasis on the National Chambal Sanctuary, India
Tarun Nair 1 & Y. Chaitanya Krishna 2
1 Gharial Conservation Alliance,
Centre for Herpetology - Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, P.O. Box 4, Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu 603104, India
1,2 Post-graduate Program in
Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Wildlife Conservation Society - India
Program, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065,
India; and Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560070, India
2 Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru,
Karnataka 560012, India
2 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
1 tarunnair1982@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 chethikrishna@yahoo.com
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3238.3620-41 | ZooBank: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:F7DB75FF-1D30-4FDE-B73B-A4B0EE36CA56
Editor: Meena Venkataraman, Mumbai, India Date
of publication: 26 February 2013 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms #
o3238 | Received 18 June 2012 | Final received 01 January 2013 | Finally
accepted 05 February 2013
Citation: Nair, T. & Y.C. Krishna
(2013). Vertebrate fauna of the Chambal River Basin, with
emphasis on the National Chambal Sanctuary, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 5(2): 3620–3641; doi:10.11609/JoTT.o3238.3620-41
Copyright: © Nair & Krishna
2013. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UnportedLicense. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to
the authors and the source of publication.
Funding: The Centre for Herpetology -
Madras Crocodile Bank Trust - Herpetological Conservation Research Fund for
financial support during the compilation of this checklist. Tarun Nair was supported by the
Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, National Centrefor Biological Sciences, and Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program for
field work in 2010. Chaitanya Krishna is currently supported by a Fulbright-Nehru Doctoral and
Professional Research Fellowship.
Competing Interest: None.
Author Contribution: TN conducted fieldwork and secured funding. CK and TN
jointly contributed towards reviewing literature and writing.
Acknowledgements: We
thank the Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Forest Departments for
research permissions. We are grateful to Rakesh Vyas, R.S. Tomar, Banwari and Jyoti for providing
logistical support for field work between 2006 and 2008; Rajeev Tomar for logistical support in 2010; Robin Kurian Abraham and Vidyadhar Atkore for reviewing the final version of the fish
checklist and Nachiket Kelkarfor comments on an early draft of the fish checklist; Rakesh Vyas, R.S. Tomar and Sunil Singhal for generously sharing their work-in-preparation; Archana Bali and Neelesh Dahanukar for providing reference material; and Divya Karnad for reviewing the
manuscript. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their comments
which improved the manuscript. We thank Saniya Chaplodfor help with the Hindi abstract.
Author
Details: Tarun Nair is a conservation biologist with
an interest in crocodilians, freshwater systems and human-wildlife conflict. Y. Chaitanya Krishnais a grassland ecologist, having worked on four horned antelopes, pallid
harriers, blackbuck and human-wildlife conflict.
Abstract: This research provides an updated checklist of vertebrate
fauna of the Chambal River Basin in north-central India with an emphasis on the
National Chambal Sanctuary. The
checklist consolidates information from field surveys and a review of
literature pertaining to this region. A total of 147 fish (32 families), 56 reptile (19 families), 308 bird
(64 families) and 60 mammal (27 families) species are reported, including six
Critically Endangered, 12 Endangered and 18 Vulnerable species, as categorised by the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. This represents the first
such extensive checklist for this region and provides an initial baseline of
species for future research in this area.
Keywords: Checklist, Gharial, Important Bird
Area, Red-crowned Roofed Turtle.
Abbreviation: IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature
For
figures, images, tables -- click here
Introduction
Biodiversity inventories or
checklists serve as repositories of baseline information on species occurrences,
biogeography and their conservation status (Chandra & Gajbe2005). They are essential tools for
developing our knowledge and understanding of biodiversity, and often the first
step to undertake effective conservation action. This information is also fundamental to
assess changes in species composition and distribution (Abraham et al. 2011) in
the face of perturbations that may be anthropogenic (dams, mining, etc.) or
natural (earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.).
Lying between 24055′–26°50′N
& 75034′–79018′E (Fig. 1), the
National Chambal Sanctuary (hereafter, NCS), was established between 1978 and
1983 by the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh to conserve
the Gharial and the unique Chambal ecosystem. It
covers nearly 1800km2 across the three states, to form the first and
only tri-state protected area in India. Despite being one of the last remnant rivers in the greater GangeticDrainage Basin to have retained significant conservation values (Hussain & Badola 2001), the
Chambal River faces severe extractive and intrusive pressures for
resources. The NCS is an Important
Bird Area - Site Code IN-UP-11 and IN-RJ-11 (Islam & Rahmani2004). A comprehensive database of
species occurring in this landscape does not exist. Currently, this information is scattered
throughout literature (Dubey & Mehra 1959; Sale 1982; Sharma et al. 1995; Chandra & Gajbe 2005; Saksena 2007; Sharma
& Choudhary 2007; Srivastava2007; Tigerwatch 2008, 2009; Vyaset al. in prep.), difficult to procure and inaccessible to the general
public or administration.
The aim of this paper is to
compile information from several sources including peer-reviewed publications,
reports and our field observations, in order to highlight the vertebrate faunal
diversity (fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals), and provide a baseline,
reference checklist for the region. We also discuss threats to the region’s biodiversity, particularly in
NCS.
Materials
and Methods
Study area
The Chambal Basin (22027’N–73020’E
& 27020’N–79015’E) is a rain-fed catchment and
drains a total area of 143, 219km2 and is characterisedby an undulating floodplain, gullies, forests, ravines, and a mosaic of
land-use types (Hussain & Badola2001; Gopal & Srivastava2008). It is bound on the south,
east and west by the Vindhyan mountain range and on
the north-west by the Aravallis. The 960km long Chambal River originates
in the northern slopes of the Vindhyan escarpment and
joins the Yamuna River near Bareh in Uttar
Pradesh. The tributaries of the
Chambal include Shipra, Choti Kalisindh, Sivanna, Retam, Ansar, Kali Sindh, Banas, Parbati, Seep, Kuwari, Kuno, Alnia,Mej, Chakan, Parwati, Chamla, Gambhir, Lakhunder, Khan, Bangeri, Kedel and Teelar (Jain et al. 2007; Gopal& Srivastava 2008). The NCS consists of a ~600km long arc of
the Chambal River. Over this arc,
two stretches of the Chambal are protected as the National Chambal Sanctuary -
the upper sector, extending from Jawahar Sagar Dam to Kota Barrage, and the lower sector, extending
from Keshoraipatan in Rajasthan to the Chambal-Yamuna
confluence in Uttar Pradesh.
The NCS lies within the
semi-arid zone of north-western India at the border of
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh States (Hussain1999). Ambient air temperatures range from 2–49 0C (Tarun Nair 2009–2010 pers. obs.) with a mean annual
precipitation of 590mm, the bulk of which is received during the south-west monsoon (Hussain 1999,
2009). From the source down to its
confluence with the Yamuna, the Chambal has a fall of about 732m. The Chambal averages 400m in width while
depth ranges from 1–26 m (Hussain 1991).
The vegetation is classified
as ravine and thorn forest (Champion & Seth 1968). Evergreen riparian vegetation is
completely absent, with only sparse ground-cover along
the severely eroded river banks and adjacent ravine lands (Hussain1999, 2009). The region was also
subject to intentional aerial seeding of Prosopis juliflora in the 1980s, as a ravine reclamation
measure (Prasad 1988), and as a consequence P. juliflorais widespread in the region.
Much of the basin has been
influenced by a long history of human occupation (Kaul1962). Anthropogenic influences are
chiefly in the form of sand-mining; bank-side cultivation; domestic activities
like bathing, washing and water collection; fishing; poaching; livestock
herding; grass-soaking; river crossing and temple fairs. The Chambal River also suffers severe
hydrological modifications from water impoundment and extraction.
Data compilation and
collection
Keywords such as Chambal,
checklist, inventory, biodiversity, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, fauna and
occurrence were used in several variations and combinations in Google, Google
Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct. The references within the resulting documents were also sourced and
reviewed. Similarly, five of the most widely recogniseddatabases of published literature on Indian biodiversity, namely, Indian
Forester, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Zoos’ Print Journal,
Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) reports and Journal of
Threatened Taxa, were also reviewed for relevant information. Preliminary checklists of fishes,
reptiles, birds and mammals were prepared based on a review of published
literature (Dubey & Mehra1959; Sharma et al. 1995; Chauhan & Narain 2001; Sivakumar 2002;
Sharma 2003; Khudsar 2004; Sundar2004; Vyas 2004; Vyas &
Singh 2004; Chandra & Gajbe 2005; Nair 2009),
survey reports (Tigerwatch 2008, 2009; Vyas et al. in prep.), status reports and taxonomic assessments
(Sale 1982; Molur & Walker 1998a,b; Rao 1988; Islam & Rahmani2002; Molur et al. 2002; Islam & Rahmani 2004; Molur et al. 2005; Schätti & Schmitz 2006; Saksena2007; Sharma & Choudhary 2007; Srivastava 2007; Choudhury et al.
2008; Sanderson et al. 2008; Driscoll & Nowell2009; Böhm & Richman 2010; Das et al. 2010;
Murphy & Lobo 2010; Tenzin 2010; Vishwanath2010a,b; Vidthayanon et al. 2011; BirdLifeInternational 2012a,b).
Opportunistic field
observations were made during field surveys in March–April 2006, February
2008, October 2009 and from December 2009 to May 2010, while collecting
information on human-crocodile conflict, gharialhabitat-use and population estimation.
We validated species
checklists based on available ecological knowledge and distributional records
for each species. For instance,
Sale (1982) reports the presence of Varanus salvator (Common Water Monitor) in the NCS.
However, in India, V. salvator is reported to
be restricted to the eastern and northeastern states of mainland India
(Whitaker & Whitaker 1980; Molur & Walker
1998b; Bennett et al. 2010), and is hence omitted from our checklist.
The taxonomic classification,
nomenclature and sequence followed Eschmeyer (2012)
and Eschmeyer & Fong (2012) for fishes; Turtle
Taxonomy Working Group [van Dijk, P.P., J.B. Iverson,
H.B. Shaffer, R. Bour & A.G.J. Rhodin] (2011) for turtles and tortoises; ITIS (2012) for
other reptiles; BirdLife International (2012) for
birds; and Wilson & Reeder (2005) for mammals.
Results
and Discussion
Faunal diversity: We recorded
147 fish species comprising 32 families (Table 2), 56 reptile species
comprising 19 families (Table 3), 308 bird species comprising 64 families
(Table 4) and 60 mammal species comprising 27 families (Table 5) from this
region, based on available literature and our field observations. This includes
six Critically Endangered, 12 Endangered and 18 Vulnerablespecies (see Table 1), as categorised by the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2011).
The NCS is among the most important
and significant habitats where several globally threatened fauna still survive.
Apart from being a strong candidate for World Heritage and RamsarConvention listings, the NCS is also subject to international treaties like the
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn
Convention), which lists both flagship species of the NCS - the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus and Gangetic River
Dolphins Platanista gangetica. It contains the most viable breeding
populations of the Critically Endangered Gharial and
Red-crowned Roofed Turtle Batagur kachuga. It
is also among the most important strongholds of the Deccan Mahaseer Tor khudree, Putitor Mahaseer Tor putitora,
Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle Chitra indica, Three-striped Roofed Turtle Batagur dhongoka,
Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis,
Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda, Sarus Crane Grus antigone and Gangetic River Dolphin Platanista gangetica. The NCS functions as a vital source and nursery for fish
fry and fingerlings, contributing significantly to downstream fisheries in the Gangetic river system (Sivakumar& Choudhury 2008). It is an Important Bird Area
particularly for the Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis,
Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus, Pallas’s
Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphusand Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga among
others (Islam & Rahmani 2004). The NCS also serves as among the best
over-wintering sites for migratory birds. In addition, this river sanctuary also forms a vital corridor and link
for the movement and dispersal of Tigers Panthera tigris from the source
population of Ranthambore Tiger Reserve to the
protected areas of Kuno-Palpur, MadhavNational Park and Darrah-Mukundra (Reddy et al. 2012;Rakesh Vyas February 2008
pers. comm.).
Threats: The Chambal faces severe extractive and intrusive pressures in
the form of water impoundment and abstraction, sand- and stone-mining, fishing,
poaching, riparian agriculture, livestock grazing, firewood collection, miscellaneous
domestic activities, and infrastructural development (Hussain2009; Nair 2010; Katdare et al. 2011; MoEF 2011; Tarun Nair 2006, 2008,
2009–2013 pers. obs.).
Seven major, 12 medium and
134 minor irrigation projects operating in the Chambal River Basin, have
greatly reduced river flow (Hussain & Badola 2001). Misleading environment impact assessments have permitted recently
commissioned water abstraction projects to operate in the NCS by suppressing
information on species’ occurrences and falsely stating “As there is no
significant flora and fauna in or around Chambal River, there should also not
be any ecological impacts from the increase in abstraction” (RUSDIP 2008, page
44). Up- and downstream effects of
dams are well-known, stemming from inundation, flow
manipulation, and fragmentation. Dams obstruct the dispersal and migration of organisms, and these and
other effects have been directly linked to loss of populations and entire
species of freshwater fish (Nilsson et al. 2005). Low-flows in the Chambal River result in
discontinuity between deep pools in the river, due to which species become more
vulnerable to netting and dynamiting (Dubey & Mehra 1959; Katdare et al.
2011). Additionally, reduction in
the number of inaccessible islands results in increased destruction of nests ofGharials, turtles and ground-nesting birds like
skimmers and Black-bellied Terns (Sundar 2004; Nair
2010). Altered flow regimes, and
insufficient flooding disrupts siltation rates and sand deposition in the river
channel. As Moll (1997) notes,
upriver dams exacerbate the problem by preventing replacement sand from coming
downriver while increasing erosion by periodic and unseasonable elevation of
water levels.
Sand-mining destroys crucial breeding
areas and is one of the most serious threats to the survival of species that
lay their eggs on sand deposits. Stone-mining, common in the upper sections of the river, causes
considerable disturbances to wildlife, destroys key breeding habitats like
otter-holts and provides easy access to ammunition for dynamite fishing (Katdare et al. 2011).
Poaching is another issue
that continues unchecked (Murthy 2004; Tarun Nair
2009–2013 pers. obs.) due to inadequate allocation of field personnel to
patrol the sanctuary. Illegal
fishing and turtle poaching are rampant, using a variety of methods (gill net,
baited hook-line, dynamite) and these also claim other species like Gharials, Mugger, river dolphins, otters and several birds
(Dubey & Mehra 1959; Vyas 2004; Nair 2010; Taigor& Rao 2010; Katdare et
al. 2011). Gill nets are
particularly responsible for entangling and drowning juvenile Gharials, thereby impacting survival and recruitment of
smaller size-classes.
Riparian agriculture and
associated activities like constant human disturbance from irrigational pump
operation and crop protection, and risks of water pollution from agro-chemical
use and oil leaks also contribute substantially to habitat loss, degradation
and pollution (Katdare et al. 2011).
In the future, river flows
would be further impacted by the 52 irrigation projects that are under
construction and 376 projects that have been planned in the basin (Department
of Water Resources, Rajasthan). Additionally, there are proposals to divert the two most important
tributaries of the Chambal - the Parbati and Kalisindh rivers (NWDA). Inspite of
water being the most critical resource in the NCS, the environmental impact
assessment for this project does not account for changes in the hydrological
regime due to the diversion of water (NWDA). There have also been calls to denotify the sanctuary itself in order to facilitate sand-mining (The Hindu 2006a, b).
Conclusion
Our effort is intended at
providing a peer-reviewed and open-access compilation of vertebrate fauna of the
Chambal River Basin, which highlights the region’s ecological
significance. We believe that this
checklist will serve as a baseline for assessing changes in species status,
distributions and occurrences in the face of threats; inform protected area managers,
conservationists and environment impact assessors; and serve as a platform to
initiate participatory biodiversity monitoring initiatives.
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