Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal: status, population and
conservation importance
Top Bahadur Khatri 1, Deep Narayan Shah 2& Nilamber Mishra 3
1,2Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN), Training Section
Building, Second floor, Forestry Complex, Babar Mahal,
Kathmandu, Nepal
3Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Paschim Kusaha, Sunsari, Nepal
Email: 1 tbkhatri@wetlands.org.np,2 shahdeepnarayan@yahoo.com (corresponding author), 3 nmishra@yahoo.com
Date of publication (online): 26 November 2012
Date of
publication (print): 26 November 2012
ISSN 0974-7907
(online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: L.A.K.
Singh
Manuscript
details:
Ms# o2990
Received 06
November 2011
Final received 09
July 2012
Finally accepted
29 September 2012
Citation: Khatri, T.B., D.N. Shah & N. Mishra (2012). Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal:
status, population and conservation importance. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(14): 3294–3301.
Copyright:© Top Bahadur Khatri, Deep
Narayan Shah & Nilamber Mishra 2012.Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 UnportedLicense. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this
article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: Top Bahadur Khatri’s research interests are in resource
management, park-people interface, community stewardship and wetland
conservation in Asia. He has been implementing various integrated conservation
and development projects in and around the protected areas of Nepal for over
two decades.
Deep Narayan Shah’s research interests are in
biodiversity, community ecology, biogeography, populationgenetics and conservation biology. In particular, he focuses on the influence
of global climate and human land-use change on animal population and
communities. He has been conducting research in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region
and is associated with several national and international scientific
organizations.
Nilamber Mishra’s
research interests are in the ecology and conservation of the large mammals of
South Asia. He has been working as Conservation Officer (Warden) in the
protected areas of Nepal for over two decades.
Author
Contribution: DNS conceived, designed and performed the study and wrote up
the paper. TBK planned the study and NM contributed in the study design and performed
field study.
Acknowledgement: We thank the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN) project, a joint undertaking of the Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), Global Environmental Facility (GEF), and
the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) for the financial support. We
thank officers and staff, especially Ramchandra Kandel and Ashok Ram for serving as members of the
technical team. We also thank CSUWN
staff, KTWR staff, Raj Kumar Singh, and all other assistants who were involved
in the census.
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:263B7577-CE69-44F2-9A96-13A775791AF5
Abstract: The Asiatic Wild
Water Buffalo Bubalus arneeis an endangered species restricted to South and Southeast Asia. Nepal’s only population survives in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve which is located on the floodplain of the Koshi River, a tributary of Ganga. This species is under threat due to high
anthropogenic pressure ranging from habitat deterioration to hybridization with
domestic buffalo. Yet, the
population has grown from 63 in 1976 to 219 in 2009, despite the decline in the
calf/cow ratio. The present study
conducted in 2009 used the block count method. The count showed the presence of a
backcrossed population of 74 in addition to the total of 219 individuals. At present, a number of conservation and
livelihood interventions have been undertaken to safeguard the biodiversity,
particularly the wild buffalo population in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. The community-based sustainable
management approach benefiting both conservation and livelihood of local people
is necessary to ensure the long term conservation of
the species
Keywords: Bubalus arnee, Critically Endangered, Koshi flood, population census.
For
figures, tables -- click here
Introduction
The genus Bubalus was widely distributed in Europe and southern Asia in the Pleistocene age,
but was later restricted to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia (Mason
1974). Today, the Asiatic Wild
Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee(Bubalus bubalisGroves 1981) occurs in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand and
Cambodia. They are associated with
wet grasslands, swamps and densely vegetated river valleys. They have been extirpated in Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Laos and Vietnam. Nepal’s only population thrives in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) whichis located on the floodplain of a snow-fed perennial river, Koshi,
a tributary of Ganga. The KTWR was gazetted in 1976 to preserve the habitat for the only
remaining population of Bubalus arnee here as Arna in
Nepal. This species is categorized
as Endangered (Hedges et al. 2008) on the IUCN Red List.
The wild water buffalo is
highly endangered, with a world population considered by FAO to be certainly
fewer than 4000 animals (Scherf 2000). Scherf (2000)
indicated that small isolated populations may remain in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (Nepal), Bastarand Raipur districts of Madhya Pradesh and ManasWildlife Sanctuary/Project Tiger Reserve (India), Royal ManasNational Park (Bhutan), and Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand), as these
populations are believed to have been least affected by interbreeding with
domestic and/or feral buffalo. Flamand et al. (2003) confirmed eight out of 10 wild
buffalo samples to be of pure wild variety genetically at KTWR. The census of Arnain KTWR has been carried out since 1976 and till now five censuses have been
conducted at four uneven intervals over a 34-year period. The most recent census was in 2004 that
estimated a population of 159 wild buffalo, and a highly backcrossed,
semi-feral population of 49 animals (Heinen & Kandel 2006). The global and national status of this species as documented by IUCN’s
Asian Wild Cattle and Buffalo Specialist Group and the American Zoo Association
suggested that appropriate management is of the highest conservation priority.
The KTWR has faced
Reserve-people conflicts since its establishment. The effect of human disturbance varies
greatly, depending on the nature and its intensity. Therefore, realizing the above
situation, the Government of Nepal in 2004, declared a surrounding area of
173.5km2 as a buffer zone. This is one of the country’s innovative strategies for participatory
conservation, emphasizing a buffer zone mechanism designed to reduce the
adverse impact of protected areas on the livelihoods of local communities and
vice versa. The total human population of the buffer zone in 2009 was 93,323
from 16,280 households. As mandated
by the Buffer Zone Management Regulations, the buffer zone is entitled to
receive a 50% share of the revenue generated by the KTWR for community
development activities. The money
received is channeled through the user groups. These user groups are formed at the settlement
level and are responsible for the planning, management and supervision of the
activities implemented.
The KoshiRiver meanders and passes through the KTWR. The river not only shapes the
physical features of the region, but also modifies the ecosystem of the area
and has profound impact on the socio-economic characteristics of the local
communities of the buffer zone residents. The Koshi River, which changes its course
quite rapidly across years, changed its main course dramatically during the
monsoon of 2008 and breached a 2km stretch and entered the human settlements
through Kushaha Village (Khatriet al. 2010a). This sudden shift in
the course of Koshi River has had a profound effect
in the physical landscape and subsequent impacts towards human settlement and
their agricultural fields. Large
tracts of forest near Prakashpur Village and
grasslands in the eastern part of the region were totally washed away. The Koshibreach brought untold misery and loss to the lives of people, not only of Nepal
but also of India. After the breach
of the eastern embankment, efforts were made to revert the main channel back to
its original course by employing over hundreds of heavy machines and equipments backed by a strong fleet of over 1000 personnel
for a period of over one year. The
Reserve had to cope with all the externalities like temporary settlements
within the reserve, supply of fuel wood and fodder, excessive use of local
resources by both local people as well as by the construction company that was
engaged in the repair and maintenance work of the breached embankment. During the course of repair and
maintenance, six male Arna were moved 5km south of
the barrage (in Gobargarha Village) from their
habitat due to the high level of disturbance. During this period, the reserve had to
bear the brunt of this natural disaster.
During the period of
political instability and conflict, all the security posts were damaged and the
security personnel were withdrawn and merged within the reserve headquarters, Kushaha. As a result, law enforcement became very weak due
to which encroachment, illegal grazing, harvesting of resources became
rampant.
The main threat to the wild
buffalo is the continued mixing and mingling of the wild and the domestic
stocks resulting in hybridization. In addition, as a result of the Koshi flood of
2008, there were speculations of a wide scale loss of this species. Therefore, to ascertain the status, a census was conducted jointly by the Department of National Parks
and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) and the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN). Here we report the current findings and compare it with earlier
censuses. Furthermore, we have
assessed the current management practices to provide future management
guidance.
Materials and methods
Study area
KTWR (86055’–87005’E & 26034’–26045’N)
lies in the alluvial flood plains of the Koshi River
of eastern Nepal (Fig. 1). The
flood plain is a complex mosaic of lotic and lentic ecosystems, characterized
by grassy marshes, oxbow lakes, swamp lakes and many depressions which retain
water throughout the year. The KTWR has subtropical climate and its topography
ranges from 75–100 m. It
covers a 175km2 core area and a 173.5km2 buffer zone
consisting of 16 VDCs (Village Development Committees) that spread across three
districts of Sunsari, Saptariand Udayapur.
The KTWR was established in 1976 and designated as the first ‘Ramsar site’ of Nepal in 1987 because of its extensive wetlands which accommodate wintering waterfowl of
international importance. It is
subject to extreme flooding from June to September. Over 80% of the area is dominated by
grasses (e.g. Typha sp., Vetivera sp., Phragmites sp., Saccharum sp., etc.) and beaches, with forests ofBombax sp., Dalbergia sp. and Acacia sp. elsewhere (Sah1997).
Methods
The
study area in general was assessed and explored to get an overview to design
the strategies and methodologies for the count. Additionally, local consultations,
information from the reserve staff and from past population surveys was gathered. Based on these exercises, the block
count method (Skinner & Smithers 1990) was
employed. The count was carried out
both by foot and with the use of elephants. The census was conducted in
April–May 2009, when visibility was the highest and water discharge was
at the lowest. A repeat count was
done for three consecutive days.
The
KTWR is rectangular in shape, where Sapta Koshi, Mariya and Trijuga rivers flow from north to south. The study area was divided into four
blocks, two blocks east and two blocks west of KoshiRiver (Fig. 1).
Block
A: This block lies east of Koshi River and south of
power line (Haripur/Kushahaarea). The area comprises open
grassland (Sacchram sp.) interspersed with a small patch of riverine forest (Dalbergia/Acacia sp.).
Block B: This block lies east
of Koshi River and north of power line (Madhuwan area and Prakashpur Side
Island). The major habitat of this
block is riverine i.e. Khair Sissoforest, tall grassland of Sachhram sp. and Typha sp. (pater). This block has a tributary and a few
constructed pilot channels.
Block C: This block lies west
of Koshi River and north to power line (Pathariside Island, Bhagalpur and Kamalpurarea). It has open grassland and
small patches of Khair/Sissoforest. This block had heavy
grazing pressure.
Block D: This block lies west
of Koshi River and south of power line (Badgama/Jagatpur area). It has open grassland and small patches
of Khair/Sisso forest. This block also has heavy grazing
pressure. At least 1km stretch
along the western boundary has been encroached on for agricultural practices as
well.
A complete sweep through the
direct count method was employed in each block. A total of 60 surveyors were spread
across different blocks with the distance kept visible to each other during the
movement. Binoculars, camera and global
positioning system (GPS) were used as and when required during the survey.
The wild buffalo was
recognized by the behavioural and phenotypic traits
such as white chevron, socks and tip of tail, and larger, relatively straight,
pale-coloured horns (similar to swamp buffalo). These criteria for identifying wild
buffalo from feral backcrosses were also used in earlier studies (Dahmer 1978; Heinen 1993a; Heinen & Singh 2001; Heinen2002; Heinen & Kandel2006).
The population growth rate
was calculated per capita per time period by the exponential growth formula ri = ln(Nj/Nk)t
(Heinen & Kandel 2006),
where ri = growth rate calculated for that
time interval, ln = natural logarithm, Nj = population size at the end of the interval,Nk = population size at the beginning of
the interval, and t = number of years in the interval.
Focus group discussion: In
order to identify the existing threats and challenges to the existing
population, a focus group discussion was conducted in addition to field
observation. The group discussed
different issues and their opinions towards measures to minimize local threats
were documented.
Results
The current study recorded a
total of 219 wild water buffaloes (Table 1 and 2). Block A area
comprised of a large herd of Arna with a single
dominant male, its offspring including a subadultmale group of seven and some isolated single males. The largest number of Arna was recorded from this block (Table 1). In Block B, the second largest herd of Arna was recorded. A small herd of subadult males and some
isolated single males were also recorded. Only small herds of Arna were present in block
C and block D. The population
growth (ri) over a 34-year time period is
0.037 (Table 3). The population
structure of Arna in KTWR from 1976 to 2009 (Table 2)
shows that the calf to cow ratio is on a continuous decreasing trend. The ratio is a function of calve birth
and survival in the first year. Therefore, the trend raises conservation concerns.
The feral and domesticated
livestock were found to be in high numbers during this study, especially in
block C and D (Table 4). The number
of backcrossed buffalo was high in 2000 it sharply decreased in 2004 but again
increased in 2009 (Table 5).
Discussion
The two large herds of block
A and B that were recorded in this census were also recorded by the previous
surveys (Heinen 1993b; Heinen& Singh 2001; Heinen 2002; Heinen& Kandel 2006). These herds of blocks A & B which consist of females and calves were considered to be
pure wild stock (Heinen & Kandel2006). These herds have remained in
their original form since decades; this could be due to better protection
afforded through the presence of range posts and security posts in the
vicinity. There is regular patrolling
in these blocks. In contrast,
blocks C and D have high disturbance due to grazing and other human
activities. As a result, a low
number of Arna was recorded from these blocks.
The population growth (ri) over a 34-year time period was high overall
but variable for blocks of 9–12 years. The adult sex ratio was female-biased in
1976, 2004 (Heinen & Kandel2006) and again in 2009, but male-biased in the three intervening
censuses. Most large mammal
populations have female-biased adult sex ratios (Bronson 1989; Heinen & Kandel 2006).
The calf/cow ratio has
reduced significantly over the whole time period. The calf/cow ratio reported for Arna in KTWR in all cases are consistent with the known
range of natural inter birth intervals for domestic buffalo recorded in various
studies and this census also shows the trend going down in calf/cows ratio
(<2 to >3 years; Cockrill 1974). Thus, the apparent decline in calf/cow
ratio, is possibly attributed either due to the decline in birth rate or
decline of the breeding populations; or increase in poaching or theft of Arna calf or death due to other reasons.
The population of feral
cattle was found to be higher than the estimated population in 2000 (Heinen & Singh 2001) whichcould be attributed to the lack of law enforcement/proper management. Mostly feral cattle were concentrated in
blocks C and D, i.e., in the west of Koshi River as
there was no law enforcement due to the absence of Range Posts and Security
Posts. In these blocks, a large
number of livestock are competing for food with Arnaat the same time there is a high risk of disease transmission. Mortality from flooding, road accidents,
poisoning and retaliatory killing and the transmission of diseases from
domestic and feral livestock are some of the major threats for wild
buffaloes. The practice of cross
breeding with wild males is still a common practice.
The KTWR has had conflicts
with local communities since its establishment (Heinen1993b). The people living closer to
KTWR are more likely to reveal negative attitudes towards conservation. Educated people and farmers have a
positive conservation attitude to some extent while the households with poor
socio-economic status and greater dependence on the KTWR for firewood, fodder
and raw materials possess a more negative attitude towards conservation (Shrestha & Alavalapati2006). Poor households are less
concerned about conservation, and institutional settings and abject poverty
near protected areas appear to affect their attitudes. Therefore, for the sustainable
management of KTWR and local support for natural resource conservation,
socio-economic development has been initiated since the mid-1990s. The Park People Project (PPP), and
Buffer Zone Policy, under implementation, has been effective in several ways (Heinen & Mehta 2000; Budhathoki2004; Heinen & Kandel2006) and many villages have benefited from the programs. This was continued by Participatory
Conservation Project (PCP) and recently by CSUWN project to improve
reserve-people discords by working together to realize the twin objective of
conservation and development.
The political instability due
to the Maoist conflict had affected conservation programmesnationwide especially since 2000 (Baral & Heinen 2006; Heinen & Shrestha 2006). The political instability was probably a factor in the decline of the
population growth rate (Heinen & Kandel 2006), but the recent survey showed a positive trend
in the growth. The Maoist conflict
created a volatile political situation (Thapa 2003)
wherein the security units no longer patrolled the Reserve. Subsequently, the peace process was
established in the country after a decade long political conflict, the
management of the Reserve has also been improving. Recently, the KTWR management has
restored a security post at Pathri, Saptari side, which has bolstered the law enforcement
regime on the western side. Necessary process is underway to reinstate other security posts in other
locations as well.
With the support of CSUWN
project, a number of conservation and livelihood interventions have been
undertaken to safeguard the biodiversity, particularly the wild buffalo
population in the KTWR. The
management plan of KTWR was finally approved in 2010 after a long period. This approval has entitled the buffer zone
communities to receive 50% of the revenue earned by the KTWR for community
development. Table 6 shows the flow
of visitors and revenue earned. There is a progressive flow of tourists both locals and foreigners into
the reserve area. By 2011, the Reserve has been able to earn a total of NPR
11,75,933 compared to the year 2006, where only NPR 395,891 was generated. After the approval of the management
plan the revenue has shot up to NPR 671,097; double the figure earned in the
year 2006. The decrease in the
revenue in the year 2009 is attributed to the aftermath of the floods that
occurred in September 2008, after a 2-km stretch of the KoshiRiver embankment was washed away by the flood resulting in the vast inundation
of the eastern stretch of the reserve including human settlements and
agricultural lands. The revenue
generation is largely dependent on the flow of tourism therefore different
protected areas have different amounts of revenue collection. The challenge exists for the protected
areas that are resource poor, even though they are as important for
conservation as the highly visited areas. One way to address the resource gap would be to create a basket fund in
which revenue generated from resource-rich protected areas could be used to
support neighbouring areas that are resource poor (Khatri 2010b). But it remains to be seen whether the stakeholders of the resource-rich
protected areas would be willing to share their revenue with others in the long
term.
In order to reduce crop
depredation by wild animals, a solar powered electric fence has been erected in
the high impact zone of the eastern sector of the KTWR. This initiative has significantly
reduced the existing local discord among the local communities and the reserve
management. Similarly, with the
erection of the electric fence, no reports of crop depredation have been
reported in that area particularly by wild buffaloes and elephants. Similarly, sustained management
interventions including a community based anti-poaching drive by mobilizing
local youths, buffer zone communities, local teachers and eco-clubs has brought
a positive impact towards the evacuation of feral cattle (cows and buffaloes)
from the reserve. The reserve
management with the active support of local communities has been able to
collect a total of NPR 128,000 from the penalties by confiscating a total of
426 cattle (both buffaloes and cows) from the Reserve. This was the first evacuation drive ever
conducted by the reserve as it is still a highly
contested political issue. As a
result, Table 7 shows the reduction in the number of feral and domesticated
cattle recorded in the reserve. Since, no forest resources exist outside of the reserve there is a high
level of grazing pressure from both feral as well as domestic stock.
A multipronged approach
towards reducing the herd size of the dometiclivestock by replacing it with a more productive one together with the
promotion of stall feeding practice would eventually
reduce the pressure on the reserve. To address the above situation, KTWR has been promoting block plantation
along the western boundary of the reserve in order to create a green belt to
allow local people to collect fodder for their livestock, thus discouraging
illegal grazing.
With the mix of alternative options
of creating a utility zone for rotational cattle grazing and fodder collection
backed by a strong law enforcement regime will ultimately offset the current
pressure exerted on the reserve.
Under the aegis of CSUWN
project, a tourism development strategy has been explored to look into the
possibilities of how to develop tourism products that could benefit local
people and to develop local stewardship towards conservation. Likewise, various livelihood improvement
activities for wetland dependent communities such as fisheries, poultries, and
wetland based green enterprise, vegetable farming, have been supported to
improve the socio-economic condition of the people.
The current increase in the
population doesn’t provide solace, as there are a number of challenges to the long term survival of this species. A multipronged approach of conservation
and development by mobilizing the buffer zone communities backed by a strong
law enforcement regime would create an ideal environment to address the current
management issues and concerns related to protection and conservation. The first priority should be towards
enhancing conservation and harnessing the byproducts of conservation for local
benefit.
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