Status review of Rocky plateaus in the northern Western Ghats and Konkan
region of Maharashtra, India with recommendations for conservation and
management
Aparna Watve
34/6, Gulawani Maharaj Road,
Pune, Maharashtra 411004, India
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3372.3935-62
Editor: Shonil Bhagwat, Open University
and University of Oxford, UK Date
of publication: 26 March 2013 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms #
o3372 | Received 04 October 2012 | Final received 18 January 2013 | Finally
accepted 07 March 2013
Citation: Watve, A. (2013). Status review of Rocky
plateaus in the northern Western Ghats and Konkan region of Maharashtra, India
with recommendations for conservation and management. Journal of Threatened
Taxa 5(5): 3935–3962; doi:10.11609/JoTT.o3372.3935-62.
Copyright: © Watve 2013. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT
allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium, reproduction and
distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of
publication.
Funding: The work leading to this paper
was partially funded by CEPF-ATREE small grants programme
CEPF-ATREE-WGhats/SGPIWGSG113_BIOME_Watve (2012-2013); Department of Science
and Technology for the Young Scientist grant SR/FT/L-15/2003 (2003-2006);
Bombay Environmental Action Group for study of Panchgani plateau from 2004-2012
Competing Interest: None.
Acknowledgements: I owe
many thanks to my husband, Sanjay Thakur, for being a constant companion in all
the hard field work and writing of this study. I
gratefully acknowledge help of: Dr. Stefan Porembski, for taking a personal
interest in guiding me about all the scientific work on rock outcrop habitats
and constant support and encouragement in the initial research which was
crucial for this study. I am
indebted to: funding agencies, mentioned above; the MS reviewers; Agharkar
Research Institute, Dr. Rao, ex-director, Dr. Mujumdar, ex-Head, Department of
Botany, for laboratory facilities, for the SERC –Fast track project, Dr.
Madhav Gadgil; Forest Department of Maharashtra, Shri. A. Joshi, PCCF, HoFF, Mr.
Thosre, ex-MD, (FDCM), (Production and Marketing), Mr. Saiprakash, previously
CCF Kolhapur, Mr. Limaye, previously DCF, Satara and field staff of Pune,
Satara and Kolhapur forest divisions; Mr. & Mrs. Shirgaonkar, Dr. Swapna
Prabhu, Vinay Kolte, Vikram Hoshing, Nina Hobbhahn, Gowri Mallapur for help in
the field work; Mr. Ashok Captain, for most of the photographs used here; Dr.
B.G. Kulkarni, Dr. Sachin Punekar, Dr. A. Khadkikar, Dr. M. Sardesai, Mr. G.
Potdar, Dr. Mandar Datar for discussion and help in identification of species;
Director and in-charge of Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Blatter
Herbarium and Shivaji University herbarium; Dr. Erach Bharucha, Dr. V. Ghate,
Dr. Hemant Ghate, Dr. A. Upadhye, Hema Ramani (BEAG), Dr. Jay Samant, Dr. M.
Bachulkar, Dr. S.R. Yadav, Dr. M.K. Janarthanam for discussions which refined
my concepts; to local people from various villages in the study area and many
others. And most importantly, my parents Dr. Sujala and Dr.
Vidyadhar Watve for great tolerance of my activities for over a decade without
which this study was impossible.
Author Details: Aparna Watveholds a PhD in vegetation ecology and works as consultant for biodiversity
research. She is currently coordinator of CEPF-ATREE funded project “Networking
and Information Support for conservation of Rocky Plateaus in the
Sahyadri-Konkan corridor” by Biome Conservation Foundation,
Pune.
The publication of this article is
supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative
of l’Agence Française de Développement, Conservation International, the
European Commission, the Global Environment Facility, the Government of
Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank.
Abstract: Rocky plateaus in the
northern Western Ghats and Konkan region are specialized habitats belonging to
the general habitat category of Rock Outcrops. Their distribution and classification is
presented here, with details of microclimate and edaphic features. Microhabitats on the rocky plateaus have
been described along with characteristic species assemblages and changes in
them due to biotic pressure. Ecological assessment of representative sites showhigh species richness and diversity (H’). A review of current knowledge about endemic flora and fauna on the rocky
plateaus shows a large number of endemic species of flora and fauna, of which
many are regionally assessed as threatened. Localized diversification within floral
and faunal genera is common and indicates active speciation. Most localities except
those within protected areas are affected by biotic pressures and there
is no specific legal protection for their rich biodiversity. The paper suggests needs for future
research on the habitat and recommends conservation and management actions
based upon the ecology of the habitat.
Keywords: Biodiversity, endemic, ferricrete, Konkan, mesa, new taxa,
northern Western Ghats, rocky plateaus, threats.
For
figures, images, tables -- click here
INTRODUCTION
The Western Ghats are an
imposing north-south range of hills that form the western edge of the Deccan
Plateau and the narrow strip of land that lies between them and the sea is
known as the “Konkan-Malabar region”. Western Maharashtra is composed of tall steep hills forming the northern
part of the Western Ghats (henceforth referred to as NW Ghats) and the Konkan
plains, which are interspersed with scattered low hills. The flat table-topped hills of the NW
Ghats rise steeply to the east of the gently undulating plains of the
Konkan. The present topography has
resulted from intense physical and chemical weathering of basalt flows which in many areas has exposed duricrusts with scarce
soil cover. Topographic maps of the
region often mark these areas as “rocky scrub” or “stony waste” or simply as
“sheet rock”. Owing to the scarcity
of woody species or forest cover the plateaus appear devoid of vegetation in
remote sensing images. Wastelands
Atlas of India by the National Remote Sensing Centre and Ministry of Rural
Development (2010) shows extensive “Category 22” (barren rocky /stony waste
areas) in Kolhapur, Pune, Satara, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts, which in
reality are rocky plateaus with high biodiversity value. The wasteland status has been easily
exploited for acquiring rocky plateaus for mining, wind farms and
infrastructure projects throughout the study area. Owing to this, only a small fraction of
the rocky plateaus remain undisturbed, mostly in the protected areas or
inaccessible areas.
This paper reviews previous
knowledge on the physical and biological environment of the rocky plateaus in
the Western Ghats and Konkan region of Maharashtra. Based on detailed primary and secondary
qualitative observations and quantitative assessments it discusses the diversity
of organisms occurring on this specific habitat. Current biotic pressures and disturbance
to the sites are documented, and conservation and management actions are
suggested.
Distribution and
classification of rocky plateaus in study area
The Western Ghats mountain
range stretches from Navapur on the Gujarat-Maharashtra border to Kerala and is
almost continuous with the exception of a gap near Palakkad. It thus traverses different bioclimatic
zones and has a pronounced south-north gradient of increasing dry period
length. The northern Western Ghats
(NW Ghats) and Konkan differ in geology and bioclimate from the southern
Western Ghats (SW Ghats) and the Malabar region. Jog et al. (2002) have described the
general geology and geomorphology of the NW Ghats and Konkan. The crest of the NW Ghats is on average
1000m, but reaches up to 1400m in some areas (e.g., Mahabaleshwar).
The NW Ghats and the Konkan
lie approximately between 15060’ & 20075’N and are
composed entirely of Deccan flood basalts, except in the southernmost tip of
the Konkan. Basalt is an
igneous rock formed from the cooling of the Deccan Trap lava flows, which forms
the base rock of the western part of Maharashtra State. The Deccan Traps are mostly arranged in
flat layers giving rise to the flat plains of the Deccan and the layered aspect
characteristic of the Western Ghats hills in Maharashtra.
The basalt has weathered to
laterite on the hill tops but the laterite cover has
eroded in most places and remains only as caps on the summits of the Western
Ghats escarpment, especially south of 18020’N (Widdowson & Cox
1996). Laterite is a product of
intense chemical weathering in a leaching environment and subsequent or
simultaneous induration (Jog et al. 2002). Laterite can be found just below the ground as a hard, pavement-like
surface which weathers by action of water courses,
leaving the laterite as a resistant cap on upland mesas and plateaus, e.g., on
Western Ghats hill tops. Laterites
have also formed on the Deccan Traps along the plains of the Konkan coast, to
which weathered laterite material from the Western Ghats ranges is added.
North of 18020’N
(roughly Mahabaleshwar area) the lateritic cap has weathered away and the
underlying basalt is exposed on the summits in the form of basaltic
plateaus. Details of origin,
evolution and geomorphology of these regions are discussed in Gunnell &
Radhakrishna (2001) and Jog et al. (2002). Many of the plateaus in this region have undergone heavy weathering and
have well-formed soil layers which support woody or
forest growth. Forested
plateaus like Mahabaleshwar or Bhimashankar have been discussed by Puri &
Mahajan (1960), Pascal (1988), and Ghate et al. (1997). However, this work primarily deals
with the exposed outcroppings of laterite and basalt in the form of rocky
plateaus as they show many special features of floral and faunal communities.
The broad term, ‘rock
outcrop’ has been used for landforms ranging from cliffs, isolated rocky hills,
inselbergs (Porembski & Barthlott 2000), ferricretes and other rocky
exposures of varying geological history. Wiser & White (1999) identified
rock outcrops by prevalence of bare or lichen-encrusted bedrock that separates
them from adjacent habitats; with on average 55% ground surface of exposed
rock, while Porembski & Barthlott (2000) have emphasized upon the
“naturally formed” or “primary outcrops” which are exposed due to
geological reasons such as volcanism, weathering etc. The exposure of large rock surface leads
to special microclimatic conditions such as high exposure to sun, shallow
soils, water stress or excess etc., which in turn influences the prevalent
plant communities. This leads to
many similarities in terms of community assemblages and adaptive strategies of
mainly flora and to a certain extent fauna associated with these habitats. The rocky plateau biodiversity described
here, on ferricretes as well as basalt plateaus, is ecologically related to
that on the other types of rock outcrops across the world due to these
similarities in microclimatic conditions. The rocky plateaus are categorized on the basis of the rock type and
geomorphology into two main types, each further divided by altitude into two:
A. Ferricretes - are indurated platforms of laterite typically with wide and flat
to gently sloping flat tops and edges marked by sharp cliffs. Most floristic literature of the region
refers to these as “lateritic plateaus”, without making clear distinction
between the rocky lateritic plateaus and lateritic soil-covered plateaus. The map by Widdowson & Cox (1996)
clearly shows the distribution of ferricretes in the western Maharashtra. They can be differentiated into:
A1. High-level Ferricretes
(HLF) (Image 1) occur on High-Level Laterites between 15–18020’N,
extend inland to 740E, and are located between 800 and 1400m
(Widdowson & Cox 1996) in the districts of Satara, Kolhapur, Sangli,
Ratnagiri, and Sindhudurg, which include the crestline of the NW Ghats. These
also occur till the Belgaum District (Karnataka State), but not seen further
southwards.
A2. Low-level Ferricretes
(LLF) (Image 2) occur in the Low-level Laterites of Konkan plains
between 50–200 m south of 18020’N in the Raigad, Ratnagiri and
Sindhudurg districts, as well as all of Karnataka and the Kerala coast,
extending from the sea coast to the foothills of the Western Ghats (see map by
Gunnell 2001). They are much more
extensively preserved than the high level laterites.
Ferricretes are often known
as “tablelands” owing to the wide flat appearance and steep edges. In Maharashtra and Goa region they are
known as “Sadas” in the local Marathi language. But the same term is also commonly
applied to secondary exposures of laterites along hill slopes. (Image 4).
B. Basalt Mesa - The basalt outcrops are exposed on mesas between 18020’–210N
& 73035’–73050’E (Image 3). These are areas where the upper layers
of laterite have eroded to expose the underlying basalt flows, and hence can
occur at any altitude depending upon the degree of weathering. Many of the hill forts of Maharashtra
State have exposed hilltops of basalt. However, flora and fauna of basalt mesas
(BM) at altitudes of 900–1100 m, especially at the crest of the NW Ghats,
have many similarities with those of high-level ferricretes. These occur in Pune, Akole, Ahmednagar
and Nashik districts. Very often they are known as “katal” in Marathi. In the Bhimashankar area of Maharashtra
the term “kharam” lands was mentioned to indicate basalt outcrops and scree on
gentle slopes. These are areas
deemed unsuitable for agriculture by local people. Fig. 1 shows the study area with
localities studied for this review.
Low-level outcrops of basalt
are known to occur in Thane and Mumbai areas (Kanheri Caves), but they have not
been surveyed in detail and hence are not discussed in this paper.
Review of literature
Rock outcrops of Africa, the
Americas and Australia have been extensively studied for more than three
decades. The distinctness of rock
outcrops from surrounding habitats is a major factor whichleads to exclusivity of the plant diversity on them. Hence they have been described as
“terrestrial habitat islands” and the microhabitats on them as “islands upon
islands” (Porembski et al. 2000a). Azonal vegetation on tropical inselbergs in Africa, Australia and
America has been studied by several researchers such as Burbanck & Platte
(1964), Wyatt (1997), Porembski & Barthlott (2000b), and Burke(2003). But there is in general a
scarcity of information regarding rock outcrop habitats of India. Globally, inselbergs of granite,
sandstones, schists etc. have been studied in detail, but the same is not true
for ferricretes and mesas. Ferricretes are known to be rich in species diversity, endemics and
edaphic specialists (Verboom & Pate 2001), but only a few studies describe
their vegetation (Porembski et al. 1994, 1997; Porembski & Watve 2005).
The only detailed information
available on the distribution of ferricretes and mesas of the study area is
from the geomorphological and geological literature. Geological Survey of India has published
data on bauxite deposits of Maharashtra ferricretes. However, data on floristic and faunistic
diversity remains scarce and widely scattered.
Bharucha & Ansari (1963)
were the first to analyze the herbaceous vegetation of slopes and scree of
Western Ghats in relation to soil, slope and aspect. Chavan et al. (1973) studied the Kas
Plateau area (Satara District) but the study also includes cliff, forest and
slopes around the Kas ferricrete. Regional floristic studies have reported the occurrence of many
narrow-niched endemic and habitat specialist angiosperms from lateritic
plateaus (Bachulkar 1983; Deshpande et al. 1993, 1995; Yadav & Sardesai
2002). Mishra & Singh (2001)
have documented threatened plants of Maharashtra, of which many are reported
exclusively from ferricretes or basalt outcrops. The first detailed enumeration of
endemics from Goa by Joshi & Janarthanam (2004) includes many species
specific to lateritic plateaus. The
most recent study on floristics of lateritic plateaus by Lekhak & Yadav
(2012) analyses angiosperm diversity in 10 sites of high
level ferricretes.
Ecological
studies and floristic and faunal observations on basalt and laterite outcrops
have been published by Watve (2003a,b, 2006, 2007, 2008), and Watve &
Thakur(2006). A review paper on the
biodiversity and ecology of rocky plateaus (Watve 2010) has been included as a
part of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) report on ecologically sensitive
areas of the Western Ghats.
In spite of these studies
there is little awareness at policy level regarding the special nature of rocky
plateau biodiversity, and their conservation requirements need to be
emphasized. Within the last decade many
rocky plateaus have been taken over by mining, windfarms, construction of
townships and industries. Tourism
has been growing in some of the scenic areas putting severe pressure on fragile
habitats. The management of these
pressures is often misguided due to poor understanding about the special
ecological features of the habitat. The measures used for protection of forest or grassland habitats are not
appropriate, as the ecological processes on rocky plateaus are different in
nature. The lack of baseline information
regarding rocky plateau ecology has severely hampered efforts of management and
conservation. Thus this is an
effort to collate baseline information with a view to highlight conservation
and management priorities.
Methods
The distribution of rocky
plateaus in Maharashtra was mapped using extensive geological literature
(Gunnell & Radhakrishna 2001; Didee et al. 2002). Topographic maps published by the Survey
of India and mineral maps published by Geological Survey of India were screened
to identify possible occurrences. Primary observational information from mountaineering, trekking
literature was also screened. Records of bauxite deposits which indicate the
distribution of ferricretes were also surveyed. Remote Sensing data was screened wherever
available (Watve 2007), however it does not always provide a reliable record as
many other non-forested or degraded areas look similar to the rocky plateaus in
RS imagery. Rigorous
ground-truthing was conducted between 2001–2012and field information was documented regarding disturbance status
(qualitatively ranked low, moderate, high) and current threats.
Floristic, faunal and
ecological information about the rocky plateaus have been collected from
primary observations since 2001 and also from published literature.
Plant communities on six
representative sites (two sites of high-level ferricretes each in Kolhapur
District and Satara District and two basalt mesas in Pune District) were
quantitatively studied and monitored between 2004–2006. At each site, five transects were laid
down, at a distance of about 300m. Five permanent quadrats of 1x1 m were marked per transect at distance of
10m each. A total of 145 quadrats
were monitored over three years to document seasonal variation in plant species
composition and richness. Physical
and chemical properties of the soil of ephemeral flush vegetation and shallow
depressions were analyzed from eight NW Ghats plateau localities.
Regional floristic literature
listing endemic species (Sharma et al. 1996; Singh & Karthikyan 2000;
Tetali et al. 2000; Singh et al. 2001) was screened, for understanding
endemism. Ecological data from
protologues, primary observational papers and enumerations of endemic and threatened
species was collated and habitat description was checked along with herbarium
specimen data from BSI and AMH. Based on these, endemic species of angiosperms and pteridophytes
reported to occur on the known rocky plateau localities were listed.
Checklists and description
records of fauna were screened to identify species whichprimarily inhabit rocky plateaus. Primary and secondary observations from zoologists were used to identify
species specific to rocky plateau habitats.
Results
and Discussion
A total of 67 locations are
described in the Table 1, grouped in the four rocky plateau types. Their exact locations are not mentioned
due to high sensitivity of the habitats and species. Watve (2007, 2010) has reported climatic
and microclimatic (soil, rock, air, temperature and humidity) conditions on
rocky plateau sites. Insolation and
scarcity of soil cause the microclimate on the plateaus to be more extreme than
the surroundings. Seasonal
variation in microclimate strongly influences the plant communities (Watve
2007). Diurnal variation is also
extreme, as can be seen from Figs 2a–d. During the dry period, the thin soil
layer does not hold any moisture and the conditions are almost arid. However, in monsoon, the impermeable
nature of the hard rock surface leads to waterlogging of the soil and creation
of ephemeral wetlands. As seen from
this, the microenvironment of the rocky plateaus tends to extremes, from xeric
to water logged.
Table 2 shows that soil
varied from sandy to sandy loam type with good water holding capacity and
normal EC. It was highly acidic
(4.5–6), rich in organic carbon, available nitrogen and available
potassium. Lekhak & Yadav
(2012) relate the presence of carnivorous plants on the plateau to the poor
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (N,P,K)
values. However, the soil is poor
only in available phosphorus. In addition to the carnivorous plants, many other
plant species are able to survive in the habitat. Hence, the abundance of carnivorous species
on rocky plateaus might be mainly because of reduced competition from other
generalist species as a result of harsh physical environment, acidic soils and
low levels of available phosphates. Presence and dominance of other plant adaptive strategies such as
poikilohydry, geophytic, therophytic, hydrophytic species seen on rocky
plateaus (Watve 2007, 2010; Lekhak & Yadav 2012) is also a result of
extreme seasonality in climate as well as microclimate from seasonally wet to
dry.
Description of microhabitats
and vegetation (Images 5–10)
A standardized microhabitat
classification has not yet been created for ferricretes or basalt plateaus. Plant species commonly seen in the microhabitats have been
described by Watve (2003a, 2010) and Lekhak & Yadav (2012). These papers have used and adapted when
necessary the microhabitat classifications used for ferricretes and inselbergs
(Porembski et al. 1994, 1997, 2000a; Seine et al. 1998; Jacobi et al. 2007).
The ferricretes or basalt
mesas in NW Ghats and Konkan, do not have
microhabitats as clearly demarcated as on inselbergs. Due to the heavy monsoon, all
depressions or flat surfaces and even boulders in depressions become
waterlogged during the rains. Thus,
there is much overlap seen between species in microhabitats. Some species are able to grow in closely
similar microhabitats, e.g., Lekhak & Yadav (2012) describe Aponogeton
satarensis as growing in SFD (Soil filled Depressions) as well as SEP
(Small Ephemeral Pools). Utricularia
albocaerulea, U. purpurascens, Eriocaulon sedgwickii or E. eurypeplonare not restricted to Ephemeral Flush Vegetation (EFV) on ferricretes, but
also seen growing in shallow depressions (SD) with soil 10–20 cm
deep. They are able to grow in a
range of microhabitats, but in lesser dominance in areas where grasses, sedges
and other ephemeral flora can compete with them due to soil availability. Very few species, with specific
adaptation such as Nymphoides spp. and Wiesneria triandra are
restricted to a single microhabitat (ponds or water pools). Most of the species are able to grow
across a wide range of soil depths and slopes, although their dominance varies
as per the specific habitat requirements.
The microhabitat
classification described here is based on Seine et al. 1998 and Porembski et
al. 2000a, with some modifications as in Watve 2010 (Table 3). However, this and all other microhabitat
classifications are limited by the fact that on the rocky plateaus there is no
clear physical demarcation between the habitats. An appropriate classification
specifically for rocky plateaus can be finalized only after detailed ecological
studies from diverse rocky plateaus in India.
The general vegetation is
similar to ephemeral communities from granitic rock outcrops—Inselbergs
and iron rich plateaus—in East and West Africa and Brazil (Porembski et
al. 1994, 1997; Jacobi et al. 2007). Presence of Cyanotis, Neanotis, Murdannia, Drosera,
Utricularia, Lindernia, Burmannia, Fimbristylis, Rhamphicarpa matches with
that on paleotropical inselbergs described by Porembski & Brown (1995) and
Dörrstock et al. (1996). Dominance
of Rotala and Dopatrium in water-filled potholes is similar to
the vegetation of seasonal rock pools described by Krieger et al. (2000). The presence of Ceropegia, Dipcadi,
Aponogeton, Utricularia, Euphorbia corresponds to that of iron rich
ferricretes of Rwanda and Zaïre described by Porembski et al. (1997). Insectivorous plants are a
characteristic of African as well as Indian outcrops. Thus the overall vegetation has close
affinities to the palaeotropical regions.
Floral diversity
Herbaceous vegetation on six
rocky plateau sites of the NW Ghats was monitored to document temporal changes
in monsoonal diversity of six sites of high altitude plateaus. The sites Z,M,C,Kwere high level ferricretes (HLFs) and D,A were basalt mesas (BMs) (See Table 1
for details). A total of 145
quadrats were monitored for two years (2004–2005 on five sites and
2005–2006 on one site). The
quadrats covered shallow depressions, seasonal rock pools, cryptogamic crust,
boulders and ephemeral flush vegetation (EFV), thus representing the most
common microhabitats on the NW Ghats plateaus. The data collected were analyzed to
understand changes in species richness calculated as total species number (N) and
diversity (H’- Shannon’s diversity index). Results are presented in Table 4 and
Fig. 3a,b.
Early phase of monsoon (July)
was period of vegetative growth of most species and very few species (Habenariaspp., Dipcadi spp.) started flowering in this period. Plants of Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Eriocaulaceae started emerging but were only distinguishable
at morphospecies level. Hence
quantitative data of this phase was not completely reliable. Late phase of monsoon corresponded
roughly to August end or September first week, which was a period of
characteristic mass blooming mainly of non-grass families (Fabaceae,
Eriocaulaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Rubiaceae) observed on all rocky
plateaus. Species richness as well
as species diversity peaked at this period as most species of forbs and grasses
completed their growth during this period. The species richness as well as diversity declined again in the post
monsoon (October) when most forbs withered away after completing growth and
grasses (Dimeria spp., Dichanthium spp. Ischaemum spp.)
dominated vegetation and reached seed dispersal stage.
Only a very few annuals and
perennials were seen in the winter and summer period and species richness as
well as diversity were very low (3–4 species). Of the selected sites, highest species
richness and diversity were seen on site D, a basalt mesa in Pune District.
From a total of 145 quadrats
(area 145m2), 132 species were reported (Watve 2007) including
57endemic angiosperms. These
included 126 angiosperms, three bryophytes (identified only as morphospecies)
and three pteridophytes. Poaceae
(36 sp.) and Fabaceae (14 sp.) were the most species-rich families in the
microhabitats surveyed.
Lekhak & Yadav (2012)
have reported more than 300 species from 10 sites. The number is likely to increase as more
surveys are carried out. Rocky
plateaus are not completely separated from surrounding habitats and some
herbaceous species from scrub and forest, can grow in areas of deep soil adding
to the species number.
Many species of cryptogams
(green algae, blue green algae, lichens, liverworts) were seen on the rocky
plateaus but were not identified to species level. G. Chitale (pers. comm. 2012) has
documented saxicolous lichens in the study area, and has described many species
from the rocky plateaus of Panchgani Tableland, Bhimashankar, Kas, Kolhapur and
Junnar areas. A complete assessment
of cryptogamic vegetation from diverse sites is required and will add valuable
information about the biodiversity and nutrient cycling on these areas.
Faunal diversity
Detailed listing of fauna
exclusively of rocky plateaus has not yet been carried out. However, diverse vertebrate and
invertebrate taxa have been reported from microhabitats on plateaus. Unlike flora, faunal species have the
ability to move away from outcrops in stressful conditions of summer or heavy
monsoon and seasonal studies are required to assess the complete faunal
diversity. Ground dwelling ants,
beetles, spiders, scorpions, grasshoppers, odonata, ground nesting birds, reptiles;
small and large mammals are often seen on rocky plateaus (Image
11–14). Raptors including
migrant species like Lesser Kestrel (Thakur & Watve 2004) have been
commonly seen on and around the rocky plateaus. Tadpole Srimp (Triops granarius Lucas),
Fairy Shrimp (Streptocephalus dichotomus Baird), and Clam Shrimps (Leptestheriellaspp. Nayar & Nair) have been frequently observed in seasonal
rock pools (H. Ghate pers. comm. 2012). Shrimps also show adaptation to extreme climate of rocky plateaus as their eggs remain dormant in ephemeral pond soil
till the approach of the monsoon.
The smaller invertebrate
fauna commonly use boulders on plateaus for shelter during extreme conditions,
while the same are used by lizards such as Sitana
ponteceriana for display. Malabar Crested Larks have been seen very commonly on the plateaus,
foraging, displaying on boulders, and nesting. Frogs spawn in ephemeral pools. Lizards, geckos, skinks (Hemidactylusspp., Sitana ponticeriana, Cnemaspis spp.) and caecilians
have been frequently observed on plateaus. However, most of the plateau fauna is not easily visible and often takes
shelter under boulders especially during the day, either to avoid the harsh sun
or because of vulnerability to predators like raptors (eagles are frequently
noted) in the open areas. Laterite
plateaus have deep caves beneath which are roosting sites for bats as on
Panchgani Tableland and Robber’s Cave of Mahabaleshwar. Except some of the herpetofauna,
endemism and threat status of fauna has not been critically assessed.
Conservation value of rocky
plateaus
High endemism and recent
records of many new species in diverse taxa from the rocky plateaus in the
study area indicates high conservation significance.
Joshi & Janarthanam
(2004) first described lateritic plateaus of Goa as habitats showing rich
floral endemism. High
endemism in rocky plateau vegetation of Maharashtra has been reported by Watve
(2007, 2010) and Lekhak & Yadav (2012). A list of endemic species and varieties
(as per the listing by Singh & Karthikeyan 2000) that occur on rocky
plateaus has been compiled, based on floristic literature and personal
observations from the region (Table 5). The threat status as per regional assessment made by Botanical Survey of
India (Mishra & Singh 2001) and those completed as part of IUCN Freshwater
Biodiversity Assessments are added. Mapping of distributional ranges of endemic herb species is not
available for this region. Hence, it is not possible to identify species
“exclusive” to the rocky plateaus. Many recently described plant species may have wider distribution than
believed at present.
A detailed analysis of
endemism on rocky plateaus can be carried out only after regional endemic lists
are revised. Hence the list in the
Table 5 should be treated only as an indicative one. So far, 188 endemics species have been
recorded from primary and secondary observations on the rocky plateaus in the
Western Ghats and the Konkan region. The list of endemics is likely to increase as more sites are
surveyed. A large number of endemic
species on the rocky plateaus are not exclusive, but widespread in similar open
moist and sunny habitats such as stream courses, forest edges, cliffs,
shrublands etc. However, it can
still be safely concluded that the rocky plateaus do serve as important
habitats for a large number of endemic plant species.
High endemism in
substrate-specific communities is well known across the world (Mota et al.
2004; Chiarucci 2004; Stevanović et al. 2003; Ojeda et al. 2000;
Keener 1983). Burke (2003) has
shown that rock outcrops make significant contribution to the local and
regional species richness. Von
Gaisberg & Stierstorfer (2005) have shown a connection between distribution
of endemics and geomorphological and geochronological traits of outcrops on El
Hierro island in the Canary Islands archipelago. Endemism on outcrops is in many cases
correlated with the regional endemism (Seine et al. 1998). This is also indicated in the present
listing as Poaceae species number is highest in the list of endemics and the
same is highest in generic endemism in India (Irwin & Narasimhan 2011).
Dimeria, Dichanthium,
Glyphochloa, Eriocaulon, Utricularia and Smithia include many widely distributed species in the
region, but have speciated into narrow endemics with restricted distribution on
few rocky plateau localities, e.g., Dichanthium panchganiensis, Ceropegia
jainii, Aponogeton satarensis seen on HLF. Such endemics with restricted
distribution are more on high level plateaus as they are separated from each
other by deeply weathered areas and function as terrestrial habitat islands
especially for species with dispersal limitations. Shukla et al. (2002) have observed a similar
manner of speciation in Isoetes on the high- altitude plateaus in the
Western Ghats and central India. The Konkan ferricretes are more or less continuous without distinct
breaks. Hence many endemics such asDimeria woodrowii are widespread in Konkan. However, Konkan
plateaus are affected by landuse changes and other biotic pressures, which have
caused fragmented populations of species such as Dipcadi concanense.
Mishra & Singh (2001) and
Lekhak & Yadav (2012) have assessed many angiosperm endemics as Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened using IUCN Red List
Categories and Criteria Version 3.1 (IUCN, 2001), though a complete global
assessment has not been made so far. This indicates urgent need of a threat assessment of the rocky plateau
habitats to identify priorities for conservation of species.
During the IUCN Freshwater
Biodiversity Assessment, (Molur et al. 2011), some species including Aponogeton
satarensis, Eriocaulon tuberiferum, Wiesneria triandra,Utricularia spp. that occur in seasonal pools and EFV on rock outcrops were
globally assessed, of which two were included in Critically Endangered, three
in Endangered and three in Vulnerable category. Aponogeton satarensis, was
assessed Endangered (IUCN 2011) based on restricted distribution and current
threats. Widespread species such asWiesneria triandra, were assessed Least Concern (IUCN 2011), as they can
easily colonize secondary habitats such as rice fields which have waterlogged
conditions similar to its primary habitats.
In recent years, new species
of Chlorophytum, Eriocaulon, Mnesithea, Isoetes, Rotala etc. have been
described from rocky plateaus. Surveys of adjacent areas need to be conducted to record the
distributional ranges of these species. Kruckberg (2002) had shown that local
diversification of plant life is typical for landscapes dominated by
geomorphological irregularities at a scale of 10-2-10km2. Thus even the smallest of the rocky
plateaus are extremely significant for local plant diversity and need immediate
protection.
The trend of high endemism
and restricted distribution seen in plants, is also
seen in case of fauna. Abundance of endemic Hemidactylus albofasciatus, (Grandison
& Soman 1963; Gaikwad et al. 2009) on LLF, and caecilians Gegeneophis
seshachari (Gower et al. 2007), Indotyphlus maharashtraensis from
HLF (Giri et al. 2004), recent description of Hemidactylus satarensis(Giri & Bauer 2008) from Satara plateau and Xanthophryne tigrinusfrom Amboli region (Biju et al. 2009) indicates that local speciation on rocky
plateaus is also seen in herpetofauna. It is also extremely necessary to take
up listing and distribution studies of invertebrate fauna to analyze if similar
trend is observed in other taxa.
Presence of endemic flora and
fauna, presence of habitat specific plants as well as animals and many
descriptions of new localized species clearly indicate a high conservation
value for the habitat. The HLF, LLF
and BM each have characteristic endemic plants and animals
which are exclusive to them. Hence, conservation of representative areas of each type of rocky
plateaus needs to be planned.
Humans and rocky plateaus
People form an integral part
of most rock outcrop landscapes across the world. In the study area, local people have
specific names such as “Sada” for lateritic plateau and “Katal” for basalt
outcrops. The presence of temples
on most rocky areas and associated legends indicate that these are well-known
features in the landscape. Dhangars
(=shepherds) of Satara District use the rocky plateau habitats for grazing of
livestock. On Jagmin Plateau in
Satara District local community has a practice of leaving boulders in mound at
one place in memory of the dead. Every year on certain date a ritual is performed there and offerings placed. Many large plateaus have a temple of the
local deity e.g. Masai, Mhavashi, Patan, Durgawadi rocky plateaus. Some of them
are locally well known and attract large number of people at festival times.
Ecosystem services
Owing to the hard impermeable
rock surface, rocky plateaus serve as water catchments. The lithomarge allows water drainage
from underground channels and perennial springs are commonly seen along the
plateaus. Mass blooming of the
plants on the rocky plateaus offers abundant food supply for the pollinators,
which is important for crops and orchards in surrounding area. It is necessary to further evaluate
ecosystem services of the plateau such as nutrient cycling etc.
Impact of biotic pressures
The entire Western Ghats and
Konkan region is under heavy biotic pressures and rocky plateaus are no
exception. Grazing, trampling,
conversion to agriculture, quarrying have been going on for several years. Agriculture, tourism, windmill farms,
mining and more recent land use changes have taken a heavy toll on the rocky
plateaus habitats.
(i) Grazing, trampling, fire:
Grazing by cattle, trampling and fire are common on all plateaus easily
accessible to people except in remote plateaus of Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. The plateaus are tolerant to low amount
of grazing, as even wild herbivores such as hares,Barking Deer, Sambar and Gaur regularly graze on the plateaus. However, increase in grazing pressure
can directly affect some sensitive biodiversity and further studies are
required. Putting fire to the
vegetation on plateaus is a regular feature on Kas and Zenda plateaus. It is not a natural phenomenon and
mostly done by careless tourists and poachers. This causes destruction of fauna and
affects seed banks in the shallow soil which are
necessary for future growth of vegetation. It may affect the characteristic plant communities in future.
(ii) Agriculture, ponds and
plantation: Agriculture on large scale is not possible on the rocky plateaus.
However, in recent years, government schemes for reclamation of wastelands for
cultivation have affected some plateau areas in Pune District. Schemes of water storage and water
conservation, leading to digging of ponds, bunding, bund plantation
of exotic trees have all caused many changes to the high- altitude
plateau flora. Some
plantations of bamboo and Acacia auriculiformis were made by the forest
department on plateaus in Satara District. These species either do not survive or
remain stunted owing to the harsh climate here. But trenching and digging for the
plantations damages the natural microhabitats (Image 15).
Conversion of plateaus into
mango orchards has led to the degradation of many rocky plateaus in Ratnagiri
and Sindhudurg districts.
(iii) Quarrying: This has had
the largest impact on the entire Konkan (low-level laterite) areas. The deep layers of laterite are
extensively quarried and the bricks (= chira/jambha) used for construction
locally, and increasingly in areas as far away as Pune and Mumbai. Quarrying is rampant and a major source
of destruction of Konkan laterite (Image 16).
(iv) Wind farms: The
rocky plateaus near Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Jagmin, Patan (all in the Satara
District) are entirely taken up by windmill farms of high intensity (Image
17). The wind farms are present on
private lands but are adjacent to the forest lands of
Koyna and Chandoli Wildlife Sanctuary within Sahyadri TR. The presence of windmills has led to
construction of roads and buildings which now divide
the large plateau into many sectors. The rubble of the construction is thrown on the plateau. The digging and construction have
disturbed the drainage pattern on the outcrops leading to disturbance of
natural microhabitats. Increased
disturbance encourages entry of invasive species, exotic as well as indigenous,
from surrounding scrub areas, which can colonize the new habitats. Senecio bombayensis and Blumea
oxyodonta, species which belong to the scrub areas
and are thus alien to the plateau microhabitats, are now seen growing on rubble
heaps between the windmills and along the roads.
Although the number of
localities showing windfarms is small, some of the largest plateaus at high
altitude, Chalkewadi and Mhavashi, Boposhi are entirely taken up by windfarms.
Many new areas are proposed for development, even at the cost of RF lands.
Pande et al. (2013) have assessed bird collision risk in a windfarm and
recommended that EIA should be made mandatory for windfarms in Western Ghats.
(v) Tourism: Heavy
tourism has destroyed the natural diversity of Panchgani Tableland and the same
threat is posed to the Kas Plateau, recently declared as World Heritage
Site. The destructive activities on
Panchgani Tableland such as horse riding, vehicle driving have been banned by
the High Court. Although this
tableland is part of Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani Ecosensitive Zone and a declared
conservation zone and natural heritage site, its biodiversity has not received
any special protection. Kas is an
area of reserved forest, where forest department is trying to regulate tourism
in an effort to make it sustainable. However, one needs to first study tourist carrying capacity and tourism
impact on such sensitive habitats (Image 18).
(vi) Mining: Mining is the
most harmful of anthropogenic activities on the rocky plateaus. High level lateritic plateaus have deposits of aluminium ore
bauxite underneath the hard surface. Lad & Samant (2009) have documented the environmental and social
impacts of mining in region. The
Kolhapur plateaus are well known for high quality bauxite and many have been
mined for more than 20 years. At
present, only the rocky plateaus within the Sahyadri TR are protected from
bauxite mining.
(vii) Developmental projects: Of the diverse rocky plateaus studied, those in Konkan (LLF) are at
most risk, as none of them falls under any legal protected area. These vast and
biologically rich plateaus have been claimed for nuclear power plant,
conversion of land into intensive urbanization and industrialization. The land conversion is very easy because
the rocky plateaus fall under ‘wasteland’ category. Jaitapur nuclear power
plant, Ratnagiri airport, Ratnagiri MIDC, Devrukh townshipare some examples of development on Konkan plateaus. The sad neglect of such a
specialized habitat and its biodiversity needs to be
stopped immediately.
(viii) Invasive species: The species that grow on rocky plateaus are adapted to the extreme
physico-chemical and climatic conditions of this habitat and have a competitive
advantage over other species of more mesic environments. However, activities that disturb the
sensitive balance lead to invasion by generalists from surrounding, either
indigenous or non-indigenous, species. This is already seen on some rocky plateaus whichhave been exposed to prolonged disturbance such as Panchgani Tableland. Building a road, digging pits for
windmills, plantation lead to soil upheaval. Debris dumping allows establishment of Seneciospp. Heteropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon from surrounding scrub
grassland. On some plateaus, around
ponds, hardy weeds such as Argemone mexicana have established. Influx of tourists on large scale has
led to accidental intrusion of invasives from faraway areas, garden weeds (Tridax
procumbens, Synedrella nodiflora etc.) on the Panchgani Plateau. Invasives compete with the specialist
vegetation of similar herbaceous nature. This is one of the most serious threats to the special biodiversity.
The impacts discussed above
indicate the nature and diversity of threats to the rocky plateaus in study
area. Immediate steps need to be taken for conservation and management.
Conservation
action
As seen from the discussion
above, most rocky plateau sites are facing threats except those in protected
areas. Thus only a limited spectrum
of biodiversity of the lateritic plateaus is under legal protection. It is necessary to take immediate
conservation action to protect less disturbed rocky plateaus representative of
the three types (LLF, HLF and BM) and also for specific rare and threatened
species.
The biotic pressure varies
from low impact with slow degeneration of species population such as by trampling
to high impact with total destruction of the habitat and its diversity as in
case of mining.
As emphasized above in the
discussion, many more exploratory and experimental scientific studies are
required to aid the conservation planning. However, the processes such as land conversion are happening at such a
fast rate that scientific studies may not be completed before the decisions of
conversion are made. Hence, in
addition to the scientific studies, simultaneous actions for conserving known
sites of high diversity are necessary.
Suggested conservation
actions are:
A. Conservation of habitat: Areas of high conservation significance
which are currently under threat need to be identified and immediate
measures have to be taken for conservation of the habitat. CEPF-ATREE funded small grant project
“Networking and Information Support for Rocky Plateau Conservation in
Sahyadri-Konkan corridor” was initiated based on this view. It attempts to identify and strengthen
ongoing conservation and restoration projects on 15 rocky plateau sites across
the NW Ghats. The aim is to link
scientific documentation with conservation planning, which will ultimately help
in protecting the sites.
B. Conservation of species: Another approach is to identify areas occupied
by highly threatened taxa or those with restricted distribution and accord
legal protection for in situ conservation of the species. At present the
threatened species of plants and animals and their habitats are not protected
under any special legal status. Thus it is impossible to take legal action against destruction of
habitats or populations of threatened species.
All the available scientific
data indicates that the rocky plateaus function as terrestrial habitat
islands. Therefore it is necessary
to protect a large number of sites throughout the distributional range of the
habitat if a significant percentage of rock outcrop biodiversity is to be
protected. It will be impossible to
include all or even a few in a single protected area. However, considering the importance of
the habitat, as many sites as possible need to be protected.
Some specific suggestions
are:
1. For rocky plateaus under
ownership of forest department
- Extra protection to be
given against mining or conversion to wind farms, grazing, fires, heavy
tourism, and monitoring for indirect threats.
- Managing the plateaus in
Reserve Forest and ecosensitive areas for conservation of biodiversity and
ecology. Regulation of landscape changes such as plantations, construction of
bunds, ponds, tourism, by scientific methods. Involving local communities in
conservation, monitoring, sensitization towards ecosystem services.
- Additional protection to
surrounding private lands to help in conservation.
2. For rocky plateaus not
under the ownership of forest department
- Identify level of
protection required. Sanctuary notification is very difficult at present if
they are not already forest lands. Acquiring of revenue, private lands,
designation of other conservation categories such as conservation zones can be
considered and management guidelines can be formed for appropriate protection.
- Discouraging quarrying,
mining, power plants by conducting thorough impact assessments and declaring
the areas biodiversity rich and hence “no-go” for large scaledevelopment.
- Assess feasibility of
cluster sanctuary especially for the Konkan plateaus, which have residual
patches due to fragmentation of habitats.
3. Create awareness and build
capacity at all levels
- For scientists, who
can contribute towards scientific understanding of the habitat,
- For society, for monitoring
the habitats, forming pressure group for conservation, responsible tourism,
- For local community, for
local management, conservation benefit sharing, reducing impacts by providing
alternative housing material, controlled grazing, controlled agriculture,
- For Policy makers, for
developing specific policy recommendations for better protection of the rocky
plateaus and also of other rock outcrops.
Management actions
The nature of biodiversity of
the rocky plateaus and the habitat is different from forest or grassland
habitats. The biodiversity of the
rocky plateaus has evolved and specially adapted to phosphate poor azonal soils
with seasonal extremes of water availability. These conditions are formed as a result
of natural processes of weathering over millions of years. The nutrients and water need to
continuously seep through the different habitats, maintaining a flow of
nutrients across the microhabitats for allowing the natural plant and dependent
animal communities to develop. Introducing artificial blockages in the flow of nutrients and water will
result in altering the ecosystem processes (Image 14) and ultimately change the
vegetation, by allowing easy establishment of grasses, shrubs and trees from
surrounding scrub areas such that it will eventually compete with the
specialized endemic flora. Hence,
it is necessary to understand that typical habitat management practices such as
soil and water conservation should not be practiced for this habitat.
Fire is not a natural part of
this habitat, and leads to burning of already scarce biomass, lichen and moss
flora important in nutrient fixing and alters the ecosystem at the same time
affecting fauna. Hence, it should
be prevented. Although grazing by
domestic cattle on low scale does not appear to be harmful to the habitat,
studies are required to see to what extent it can be allowed at each site, as
the cattle competes with the wild herbivores.
Removal of plants and animals
species, natural to the habitat should be prohibited. To protect diverse plant communities,
care should be taken to maintain the entire range of microhabitats described in
this paper. Removal of boulders, filling of shallow ponds, or altering the
drainage pattern can have severe impacts on biodiversity
which may be visible only after some years.
Tourism, wind farms,
infrastructure development and mining are serious threats to the rocky
plateaus. Unfortunately, ecological impact assessment (EIA) is not mandatory
except for mining in the region. But considering the sensitive nature of the biodiversity of the rocky
plateaus, comprehensive EIA should be made mandatory for any development
affecting the area which should include extensive
studies in monsoon season.
Recommendations
Following recommendations can
be made based on above:
- Exclusion from the
wasteland or Barren Rock Category
- Scientific enumeration of
the floral and faunal richness of the habitat including those in the PAs as
well as non PAs with special focus on lesser-known cryptogamic vegetation and
invertebrate fauna
- Exploring plant-animal
relationships on rocky plateaus (e.g., pollination)
- Global threat assessment of
the endemic elements as well as other species at local level. Compilation of distributional data of endemic herb species for
understanding their dependence on rocky plateau localities.
- Establishment of
experimental research projects to understand rocky plateau ecology, ecosystem
processes, services, and linkages
- Monitoring the rocky
plateau ecology on long-term basis
- Assessment of ecological
status of the rocky plateaus and biodiversity
- Enhanced protection of
rocky plateaus within existing protected areas and protection of additional representative
sites to complement currently protected sites
- Involving local communities
in conservation and monitoring exercises
- Limiting destructive
activities such as mining, plantation, tourism, constructions and burning on
plateaus
- Awareness generation about
the importance of preserving these habitats in scientists, policy makers and
society
It is hoped that this
approach will prove to be a step towards a much more comprehensive study of the
biodiversity of rock outcrops in entire India and will sensitize policy makers
to design conservation strategies for this unique habitat type.
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