Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 September 2026 | 18(9): 29751–29758
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10533.18.9.29751-29758
#10533 | Received 18 March 2026 | Final received 12 August 2026| Finally
accepted 02 September 2026
Schedule III of the Wild Life
(Protection) Amendment Act, 2022: a new legal shield for India’s threatened
plant species
Monalisa Dey 1 & Avishek Bhattacharjee 2
1 Sikkim Himalayan Regional Centre,
Botanical Survey of India, Rajbhawan, Gangtok, Sikkim 737103, India.
2 Central National Herbarium,
Botanical Survey of India, B. Garden, Howrah, West Bengal 711103, India.
1 drmdey2010@gmail.com, 2 aviorch@gmail.com
(corresponding author)
Editor: Anonymity requested. Date of publication: 26 September 2026 (online
& print)
Citation: Dey, M. & A. Bhattacharjee (2026). Schedule III
of the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022: a new legal shield for
India’s threatened plant species. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 18(9):
29751–29758. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10533.18.9.29751-29758
Copyright: © Dey & Bhattacharjee 2026. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: None.
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Acknowledgements: The authors are thankful to the director, Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata, head of office (HoO), BSI Sikkim Himalayan Regional Centre, Gangtok, and HoO, Central National Herbarium (CNH),
Howrah for extending institutional support and research facilities. They are grateful to Dr U.C. Pradhan, Kalimpong, Dr C. Sathishkumar, Dr S. Suresh, and Dr C.R. Chitra of Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research
Institute (JNTBGRI), Palode, Dr K. Prasad, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi, Dr Sanjay Mishra, BSI Central Regional Centre, Allahabad, Dr Ranjith Layola M.R., CNH, and Ms. Priya Singh Kushwaha, CNH for providing some photographs for publication, and Dr Nilesh Vijay Malpure, S.S.G.M. College, Kopargaon for identification of Ceropegia candelabrum L. We are thankful to the anonymous reviewer(s) for refining our manuscript.
Abstract: India’s Wild Life (Protection)
Amendment Act, 2022 marks a pivotal step in plant conservation by introducing
Schedule III for specified plant species. This schedule regulates the
cultivation, possession, trade, and transport of threatened and high-value
plants through a permit-based system, aligning domestic law with CITES
obligations. It shifts focus from outright collection bans to a balanced
approach that encourages sustainable cultivation while preventing illegal wild
extraction. The amendment enhances biodiversity conservation, supports
livelihoods, and strengthens global compliance. Effective implementation can
achieve long-term conservation outcomes with streamlined permits, better
awareness, scientific support, and community participation.
Keywords: Biodiversity conservation,
CITES, community participation, illegal trade, IUCN, legislation,
livelihood, permit, rare flora, sustainable cultivation.
India is one of the world’s
richest countries in terms of plant biodiversity, hosting thousands of endemic,
medicinal, ornamental, economically and ecologically significant plant species.
The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 serves as India’s primary legislation for
safeguarding wild animals, birds, plants, and their habitats. Initially, it
categorized protection levels into six Schedules (I–VI), each offering varying
degrees of legal protection and penalties. The plants listed in Schedule VI of
this Act are rare and threatened, and the act prohibits cultivation,
possession, and trade without permission aiming to conserve rare flora.
However, increasing commercial demand, illegal trade, habitat loss, and
unregulated cultivation have placed many valuable plant species under serious threat.
Recognizing these challenges, the
Government of India enacted the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022,
which updates and strengthens the original law rather than replacing it. The
2022 Amendment modernizes it to tackle wildlife trafficking, invasive species,
global trade, and current conservation challenges. It was passed by Parliament
in 2022, signed by the President on 19 December 2022, and came into force on 1
April 2023.
The 2022 Amendment Act has four
(I to IV) Schedules, introducing a new Schedule III dedicated exclusively for
protection of specified plant species. The species of plants listed under the
Schedule III are defined as ‘specified plants’ under Section 2(27) of the
Wildlife (P) Act, 1972 as amended.
This landmark amendment marks a
significant shift in India’s conservation framework by extending regulatory
protection beyond animals to include high-value and threatened plants, thereby
aligning national legislation with international conservation commitments such
as CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora).
Schedule III of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, as amended in 2022, lists specified plant species whose:
cultivation, possession, sale, purchase, transport, and trade (domestic and international)
are now regulated through a permit-based system. While earlier provisions
focused primarily on bans on collection from the wild, Schedule III introduces
a balanced regulatory approach, allowing controlled cultivation and trade while
preventing illegal extraction from the wild.
A separate Chapter IIIA under the
heading ‘Protection of Specified Plants’ have been included under the Act and
regulatory provisions in respect of the Schedule III specified plants have been
mentioned under Sections 17A to 17H in the Act highlighting various legislative
guidelines under the following headings:
Section 17A: Prohibition of
picking, uprooting etc. of specified plants.
Section 17B: Grants of permit for
special purpose.
Section 17C: Cultivation of
specified plants without license prohibited.
Section 17D: Dealing in specified
plants without license prohibited.
Section 17E: Declaration of
stock.
Section 17F: Possession etc. of
plants by licensee.
Section 17G: Purchase etc. of
specified plants.
Section 17H: Plants to be
Government property.
Plant Species Included in
Schedule III
The schedule includes several
ecologically, medicinally, and culturally significant plant species, as listed
below:
Strobilanthes
kunthiana (Nees) T.Anderson ex Benth.
[‘Neela-kurinji’ – a mass-flowering endemic plant of
the Western Ghats; Vulnerable VU A2c (Bachan &
Devika 2024 as per IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, ver. 3.1)].
Coptis teeta Wall. [‘Gold threat’, ‘Mishmi teeta’
– extensively used as medicinal plant; Endangered EN A2cd (Saha
et al. 2015a as per IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, ver. 3.1)].
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. [‘Tree Turmeric’ – roots are traded under the name
‘Mirmanjal’, used in various systems of medicine,
such as Ayurveda, folk, Tibetan and Siddha; Data Deficient DD (Ved et al. 2015a as per IUCN Red list of Threatened
Species, ver. 3.1)].
Taxus wallichiana Zucc. [Common ‘Yew’ or ‘East Himalayan Yew’– extensively
used in preparing furniture, cabinet work, candlestick, the alkaloid compounds
(taxanes) of the bark are a source for the
anti-cancer drug paclitaxel (Taxol); Endangered EN A2acd (Thomas & Farjon 2011 as per IUCN Red list of Threatened Species,
ver. 3.1)].
Vanda coerulea Griff.
ex Lindl. [‘Blue Vanda Orchid’ – highly prized
ornamental orchids for long-lasting, spectacular blooms, preferred for
hybridization and also used in traditional medicine, cosmetic and skincare].
Nepenthes khasiana
Hook.f. [‘Pitcher Plant’– India’s only native
carnivorous plant, endemic to Meghalaya; Endangered EN B2ab(iii) (Ved et al. 2015b as per IUCN Red list of Threatened
Species, ver. 3.1)].
Renanthera imschootiana
Rolfe [‘Red Vanda Orchid’ – highly ornamental, long-lasting, vibrant orange-red
flowered orchid with long branching spikes, also used in traditional medicine].
Cycas spp.
Ceropegias
spp.
Aenhenrya rotundifolia (Blatt.) C.S.Kumar & F.N.Rasm.
[‘Jewel Orchid’ – highly attractive for beautiful, reticulated leaves; endemic
to southern Western Ghats of India; (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red
list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Odontochilus
grandiflorus (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook.f. [‘Jewel Orchid’
– threatened, very attractive for its unique flowers with spotty petals and
green leaves; earlier endemic to India, but now also found in Myanmar and
Vietnam (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Odontochilus
tetrapterus (Hook.f.) Av.Bhattacharjee & H.J.Chowdhery [‘Jewel Orchid’ – unique in having four
lobed, cruciform epichile and dark velvety green
leaves; endemic to Manipur, India; (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red
list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Rhomboda pulchra (King & Pantl.)
Ormerod & Av.Bhattacharjee
[syn. Zeuxine pulchra
King & Pantl.; ‘Jewel Orchid’ – leaves adaxially
blackish or purplish-brownish; endemic to northeastern India (Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim); (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red list
Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Vrydagzynea
viridiflora Hook.f.
[‘Jewel Orchid’ – with white-green flowers and green leaves; (assessment not
yet done as per IUCN Red list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Zeuxine andamanica King & Pantl.
[‘Jewel Orchid’ – with white flowers having yellow blotch on labellum and 5 to
many veined leaves; Endemic to India (Andaman Island); (assessment not yet done
as per IUCN Red list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Ipsea malabarica (Rchb.f.) Hook.f. [‘Malabar Daffodill
Orchid’ – a threatened and beautiful yellow flowered ground
orchid; endemic to India (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red list
Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Habenaria barnesii Summerh. ex C.E.C.Fisch. [‘Barnes Habenaria’ – a rare ground orchid of Nilgiris
and other parts of the Western Ghats; endemic to southern Western Ghats of
India (assessment not yet done as per IUCN Red list Criteria, ver. 3.1)].
Podophyllum hexandrum
Royle [‘Himalayan Mayapple’, ‘Indian Mayapple’, ‘Papra’ – perennial rhizomatous herb found in alpine
region, distributed in the entire range of Himalayas from Ladakh
to Sikkim, extensively used in traditional systems of medicine; Endangered (EN)
A2bd+3cd+4cd (Chauhan 2024 as per IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, ver.
3.1)].
Dolomiaea costus (Falc.) Kasana & A.K.Pandey
[= Saussurea lappa
(Decne.) Sch.Bip., Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch, ‘Kuth’ – an important medicinal plant used in Ayurveda and
Tibetan medicine; Critically Endangered CR A2cd (as Saussurea
costus) (Saha et al.
2015b as per IUCN Red list of Threatened Species, ver. 3.1)].
Renanthera imschootiana, Nepenthes khasiana, Dolomiaea costus (as Saussurea costus)
and Cycas beddomei are listed under Appendix I of CITES, while rest of the Cycas
spp., Taxus wallichiana, Podophyllum hexandrum and rest of the above mentioned orchids are listed in Appendix II of CITES.
These species have long been vulnerable to over-exploitation and illegal trade,
both domestically and internationally, however, only five of these were earlier
listed and provided protection under Schedule VI of the Wild Life (Protection)
Act, 1972. Although several species have been added to Schedule III, ladies slipper orchids (Paphiopedilum spp.), listed
in Appendix I of CITES and earlier included in Schedule VI of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972 are missing from the Schedule III.
Linkages of Schedule III species
with the Foreign Trade Policy of Govt. of India and exclusion of Paphiopedilum
spp. from Schedule III
The Government of India, through
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC),
issued the Wild Life (Protection) International Trade of Specimens Rules, 2023
via Notification No. S.O. 5408(E) dated 21 December,
2023. These rules were framed under the authority of Section 63 of the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to operationalize the provisions of Section 49H.
Their primary objective is to regulate the international movement of wildlife
specimens, including their import, export, and re-export, while ensuring
compliance with the requirements of the CITES and the applicable policies of
the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT). There is a total ban on export
of wild orchids from India under the Foreign Trade Policy of Government of
India since long. So, although the Paphiopedilum spp. are left out of
the purview of Schedule III during 2022 amendments to the Wildlife (P) Act,
1972, the export of the genus of orchids of wild origin remains prohibited from
India.
In Schedule III of the amended
Act, Cycas L. and Ceropegia L.
are just vaguely listed as ‘Cycas spp.’ and ‘Ceropegia
spp.’. However, 18 taxa of Cycas (Devi et al. 2025) and 72
taxa of Ceropegia (Ranjan et al. 2024; Chiranjeevi et al. 2026) are found in India. Here, ‘spp.’
may be interpreted as multiple species within the genus Cycas and
genus Ceropegia and that all the species
within the genus Cycas and genus Ceropegia
found in India are deemed to be included under the Schedule III of the Wildlife
(P) Act, 1972 as amended. However, an annotation explaining the above facts or
a proper clarification (with list) needs to be provided to include all the
species and infraspecific taxa of these two genera (Cycas and Ceropegia) in order to provide protection to each taxa against exploitation.
Under the amended Act, permits
are required for the cultivation, possession, sale, transport, and trade of
specified plants. The state forest departments are appointed as the authorities
responsible for issuing these permits. Traceability systems are implemented to
differentiate legally cultivated plants from those collected in the wild.
Violations, such as unauthorized trade or transport, are subject to penalties
and legal action. This framework promotes conservation while allowing
sustainable use, benefiting both biodiversity and legitimate growers.
Alignment with CITES and Global
Conservation Standards
Many species listed under
Schedule III are already included in Appendices of Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulate
international trade. A separate Schedule IV has been incorporated during 2022
amendments to the Wildlife (P) Act, 1972 which includes all animal and plant
species listed under the various Appendices to the CITES. Therefore, some of
the species/genera are listed both under the Schedule III and Schedule IV of
the Wildlife (P) Act, 1972 as amended. Hence, both the provisions under the
CITES and Chapter IIIA of the Wildlife (P) Act, 1972 will be applicable during
international trade in these CITES listed species. A separate Chapter VB is
included under the heading ‘Regulation of International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora as per CITES’ and Sections 49D to 49R describe
the various provisions/definitions/regulatory guidelines for implementation of
CITES. Since Schedule III includes several CITES listed species/genus, the
traders/growers need to understand inter alia both the provisions under the
Chapter IIIA and VB. For proper implementation of the provisions under the Act
in relation to Schedule III and IV, coordination among State Forest
Departments, Customs and CITES Management Authority is imperative.
Stakeholders’ awareness regarding 2022 amendments needs to be promoted.
By incorporating these Schedule
III plants into domestic law, India strengthens enforcement against illegal
export, reduces loopholes exploited by wildlife traffickers and enhances
compliance with international conservation obligations. This harmonization
improves India’s credibility in global biodiversity governance.
Conservation and Socio-Economic
Significance
The introduction of Schedule III
has multiple benefits, biodiversity conservation by protecting rare and endemic
plant species from extinction, providing sustainable livelihoods by encouraging
regulated cultivation by farmers, nurseries, and tribal communities, promoting
scientific research by facilitating lawful access for research and conservation
breeding, and awareness and accountability by bringing plants into mainstream
wildlife protection discourse. Importantly, it recognizes that like animals,
plants also require legal safeguards due to their ecological and economic
value.
Challenges
With proper execution, Schedule
III can become a model for plant conservation in biodiversity-rich countries.
Despite its progressive intent, the introduction of Schedule III for specified
plant species has several limitations and practical challenges that may affect
its effective implementation.
For legal
trade/dealing/possession of any Schedule III species, the growers or traders
must obtain a license from the concerned chief wildlife warden of the state/union
territories and declare their stock of such specified plants (Schedule III).
Also, there is a need for proper identification of the species and their
parts/products and derivatives during trade/transit which is a major challenge
for the law enforcement agencies. The MoEF&CC,
Government of India, notified a list of 23 designated Scientific Authorities
under the CITES recently and for identification/scientific advice/
Non-detriment Finding study report, necessary guidance/assistance may be taken
from the concerned/appropriate scientific authority designated for the purpose.
The requirement of permits for
cultivation, possession, sale, and transport may lead to delays in approvals,
increased paperwork and administrative bottlenecks. This can discourage genuine
cultivators, researchers, and small-scale nurseries from engaging in legal
plant trade. Many farmers, traders, nursery owners, and even local forest
officials are unaware of Schedule III provisions and don’t have a clear
understanding about permit procedures and compliance requirements. This
knowledge gap may result in unintentional violations of the law.
Distinguishing legally cultivated
plants from illegally collected specimens from wild remains difficult. Forest
departments often face shortage of trained manpower, lack of botanical
expertise for species identification, limited infrastructure for monitoring
cultivation and trade.
Schedule III mainly regulates
trade and possession, but does not directly address
survival problems arising due to habitat loss, climate change, or invasive
species, and thus, may not fully protect species whose survival depends on
ecosystem-level conservation. Local communities and indigenous groups who
traditionally use or cultivate these plants may face legal hurdles, reduced
access, lack of clear exemptions or simplified procedures. This could
negatively affect livelihoods and traditional knowledge systems. Furthermore,
Schedule III overlaps with forest laws, Biodiversity Act, 2002, state-specific
regulations. Such overlaps may cause confusion, duplication of permissions, and
legal complexity.
Future Scope and Way Forward for
Schedule III of the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022
The introduction of Schedule III
marks an important milestone in India’s plant conservation regime. However, its
long-term success depends on adaptive governance, scientific support, and
stakeholder participation. The following measures outline the future scope and
strategic way forward.
1. Expansion and periodic
revision of Schedule III: i) additional threatened,
endemic, and high-value plant species should be scientifically assessed and
included based on IUCN status (ver3.1) and trade pressure; ii) regular revision
of the Schedule will ensure responsiveness to emerging conservation threats.
2. Development of clear
cultivation and certification protocols: i)
standardized species-specific cultivation guidelines should be issued in
consultation with botanical institutions; ii) a certification and tagging
system (QR codes / barcoding) can help distinguish cultivated stock from
wild-collected plants, improving traceability.
3. Simplification and
digitization of permit systems: i) introduction of a
single-window, online permit platform for cultivation, transport, and trade;
ii) time-bound approvals of permits/ certificates will reduce processing delays
and encourage legal compliance.
4. Strengthening institutional
and technical capacity: i) training programs for
forest officials in plant taxonomy, trade monitoring, and CITES procedures; ii)
engagement of institutions like Botanical Survey of India (BSI), universities,
and herbaria for scientific validation and advisory support.
5. Community and farmer
participation: i) promote community-based cultivation
models involving local farmers, self-help groups, and indigenous communities;
ii) provide incentives such as subsidies, technical assistance, and assured
buy-back mechanisms for legally cultivated plants.
6. Integration with biodiversity
and climate policies: i) harmonize Schedule III
implementation with the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, National Biodiversity
Action Plan, and climate adaptation strategies; ii) focus on ex situ
conservation, seed banks, micropropagation, and assisted regeneration programs.
7. Strengthening research and
monitoring: i) encourage research on propagation
techniques, population dynamics, and sustainable harvest limits; ii) establish
national-level databases for tracking trade volumes and conservation status.
8. Public awareness and outreach:
i) awareness campaigns targeting traders, nurseries,
enforcement agencies, and the public; ii) inclusion of Schedule III species in
educational curricula and conservation outreach programs.
9. International cooperation and
CITES compliance: i) strengthen coordination with
CITES authorities for monitoring cross-border trade; ii) promote India as a
leader in plant conservation governance at global biodiversity forums.
Conclusion
The introduction of Schedule III
under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 represents a historic step
in India’s conservation journey. By legally regulating the cultivation and
trade of threatened plant species, the amendment strikes a crucial balance
between protection and sustainable use. It reinforces India’s commitment to
conserving its unique botanical heritage while aligning national law with
global environmental standards.
Protecting plants today is
essential for securing ecosystems, livelihoods, and biodiversity for future
generations. The future of Schedule III lies in transforming it from a
regulatory instrument into a science-driven, participatory conservation
framework. With improved implementation, technological support, and community
engagement, Schedule III can ensure the long-term conservation of India’s
threatened plant species while supporting sustainable livelihoods and legal
trade.
A comparative list between
Schedule VI of Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, and Schedule III of Wild Life
(Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 is given below.
|
|
Plants listed in Schedule VI of
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 |
Plants listed in Schedule III
of Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 |
|
1 |
Beddomes’ cycad (Cycas beddomei) |
Strobilanthes kunthiana |
|
2 |
Blue Vanda (Vanda soerulec) [Vanda coerulea] |
Coptis teeta |
|
3 |
Kuth (Saussurea lappa)
[= Dolomiaea costus] |
Coscinium fenestratum |
|
4 |
Ladies slipper orchids (Paphiopedilum
spp.) |
Taxus wallichiana |
|
5 |
Pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana) |
Vanda coerulea |
|
6 |
Red Vanda (Renanthera imschootiana) |
Nepenthes khasiana |
|
7 |
--- |
Renanthera imschootiana |
|
8 |
--- |
Cycas spp. |
|
9 |
--- |
Ceropegia spp. |
|
10 |
--- |
Aenhenrya rotundifolia |
|
11 |
--- |
Odontochilus grandiflorus |
|
12 |
--- |
Odontochilus tetrapterus |
|
13 |
--- |
Rhomboda pulchra |
|
14 |
--- |
Vrydagzynea viridiflora |
|
15 |
--- |
Zeuxine andamanica |
|
16 |
--- |
Ipsea malabarica |
|
17 |
--- |
Habenaria barnesii |
|
18 |
--- |
Podophyllum hexandrum |
|
19 |
--- |
Dolomiaea costus |
For
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