Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 February 2026 | 18(2): 28378–28386
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10146.18.2.28378-28386
#10146 | Received 06 September 2025 | Final received 26 January 2026 |
Finally accepted 06 February 2026
Nesting dynamics of Red-wattled
Lapwing Vanellus indicus Boddaert, 1783 in urban and rural regions of
Indore, India
Kratika Patidar 1 & Vipul Keerti Sharma 2
1,2 Department of Zoology, Government
Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452001,
India.
1 kratikapatidar15@gmail.com
(corresponding author), 2 vipulkeertisharma@gmail.com
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India. Date of publication: 26 February 2026 (online & print)
Citation:
Patidar, K. & V.K. Sharma (2026). Nesting dynamics of Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus
indicus Boddaert, 1783 in urban and rural regions of Indore, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 18(2): 28378–28386. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10146.18.2.28378-28386
Copyright: © Patidar & Sharma 2026. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in
any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of
publication.
Funding: This work was supported by the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR), Government of India, through a Junior Research Fellowship
(JRF), with additional support under the DST-FIST Program–2024 (Grant No.
TPN-107420).
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Kratika Patidar is a doctoral research scholar in
the Department of Zoology at Government Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science
College, Indore, India. Her research focuses on the nesting ecology and bioacoustics of the Red-wattled Lapwing, with broader interests in avian
ecology, behavioural ecology, and conservation biology. Dr. Vipul Keerti Sharma is professor and head of the
Department of Zoology at Government Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, India. He is a zoologist, wildlife filmmaker, author, and
science communicator, and a recipient of three National Awards for wildlife
films, with research interests in ornithology and biodiversity conservation.
Author contributions: KP: fieldwork, study design, observations,
manuscript drafting. VKS: conceptualization, supervision, review, and
proofreading.
Acknowledgements: This research was conducted with financial support from the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India. We
thank Harsh Vishwakarma, CCDH, IIT Indore, for his assistance in data analysis.
Abstract: With their ground-nesting
habits, the Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus are particularly
vulnerable to urbanization, which affects their nesting behaviour, reproductive
success, and habitat use. The present study was designed to explore the
adaptation strategies of the species in rural (Jamli), peri-urban (Rau) and
urban (Holkar Science College) habitats of Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Forty-five nests were monitored for nesting success (March–July 2024), along
with predation risks and microclimatic conditions during the breeding season.
Nest site, clutch size, incubation, and fledgling success were observed.
Nesting success was highest (93%) in peri-urban and rural areas (90%), but
lowest (70%) in urban areas; a similar pattern was observed for reproductive
success, which was highest in peri-urban and rural habitats and lowest in urban
regions. Primarily found on rooftops, urban nests avoided many risks associated
with terrestrial predators but introduced new risks, including high levels of
human disturbance, altered predator communities, and extreme microclimates that
negatively affected reproductive success. Nesting in rural areas provided
optimal conditions, with less human interference, improved natural camouflage,
and constant dynamics of the environment. Peri-urban areas showed great
success, reflecting a balance between natural and anthropogenic influences. We,
therefore, conclude that urban areas do show the adaptability of the species.
To mitigate the impacts of urbanization, conservation efforts should prioritize
protecting rural and peri-urban habitats, reducing human disturbance, and
supporting artificial nesting platforms in urban areas.
Keywords: Anthropogenic disturbance,
breeding ecology, breeding phenology, ground-nesting birds, habitat adaptation,
nesting ecology, nest-site selection, nesting success, reproductive success.
Introduction
Life-history trait estimates are
integral to predicting population growth rates, assessing species’ sensitivity
to environmental changes, supporting conservation planning, and informing
management decisions (Stahl & Oli 2006; Sládeček et al. 2021). In birds,
life-history traits are key to understanding maximum population growth
potential, and this knowledge is essential for evaluating species’ responses to
changing environments and for developing effective, targeted conservation
strategies (Stahl & Oli 2006; Sládeček et al. 2021). The Red-wattled
Lapwing Vanellus indicus (Image 1) is a wader in the family
Charadriidae, widely distributed across the
Indian subcontinent, and currently assessed as ‚Least Concern‘ by
IUCN. The Red-wattled Lapwing serves as
an important ecological component of the habitat due to its role as both a
predator and prey: it feeds on insects such as beetles, ants, termites,
caterpillars, and small invertebrates, helping regulate insect populations,
while its eggs, chicks, and occasionally adults are preyed upon by predators
such as kites, crows, mongooses, dogs, snakes, and monitor lizards (Ali &
Ripley 1998) and is characterized by its bold black-and-white plumage and
familiar loud calls. When urbanization start to encroach natural habitats,
Red-wattled Lapwings nest on rooftops and under-construction building, which
indicates habitat shift as traditional rural nesting sites are being lost due
to landscape disturbances such as agricultural intensification, land-levelling,
road and building construction, sand and soil extraction, removal of
vegetation, heavy machinery movement, and increasing human activity (Kumar et
al. 2022).
Red-wattled Lapwings predominantly
nest in open, semi-arid habitats such as agricultural fields, riverbanks, fallow
lands, and grasslands, as widely reported from different regions of India (Ali
& Ripley 1998; Choudhary & Chishty 2022). Within these habitats, eggs
are typically laid in shallow ground depressions or simple scrapes that closely
resemble the surrounding substrate, providing camouflage against predators (Ali
& Ripley 1998). Similar nesting preferences and ground-scrape nest
structures have also been documented in recent regional studies across
agro-ecosystems and semi-natural landscapes, reinforcing the species’
dependence on open habitats for successful breeding (Arya et al. 2023; Gupta
& Saxena 2023; Kadam & Jadhav 2023).
Urbanisation has a pronounced
influence on nesting behaviour, egg viability, and habitat selection in birds,
particularly among ground-nesting species. For the Red-wattled Lapwing, rural
nests are generally rudimentary scrapes on bare ground or gravelly substrates
that blend with stones and soil. While this strategy enhances camouflage, it
also exposes eggs and chicks to substantial risks from common predators such as
mongooses, kites, crows, dogs, snakes, and monitor lizards, in addition to nest
destruction caused by agricultural activities and livestock grazing (Hart et
al. 2002; Whittingham & Evans 2004).
Urbanisation also alters ecological
communities associated with Red-wattled Lapwing breeding habitats. While
natural landscapes support relatively stable prey assemblages dominated by
insects such as beetles, ants, termites, caterpillars, and other
ground-dwelling invertebrates, urban habitats often experience changes in prey
availability and composition due to surface sealing, pesticide use, artificial
lighting, and modified vegetation structure (Newton 1998; Chen et al. 2023).
Similarly, predator communities shift from predominantly terrestrial predators
in rural areas to a greater influence of aerial predators such as crows and
kites in urban settings, creating a distinct predation regime that can
negatively affect egg viability and chick survival. Comparable patterns have
been reported in other ground-nesting shorebirds in India, including the Little
Ringed Plover Thinornis dubius, Hanuman Plover Anarhynchus seebohmi,
and Crab Plover Dromas ardeola, where breeding success is increasingly
constrained by habitat modification, human disturbance, and altered predator
pressure in coastal and human-dominated landscapes (Byju et al. 2023a,b,c).
These parallels highlight the broader vulnerability of ground-nesting birds to
anthropogenic pressures and provide a comparative framework for interpreting
the nesting adaptations and reproductive outcomes of the Red-wattled Lapwing
across urban–rural gradients.
Although the Red-wattled Lapwing is
currently listed as ‚Least Concern‘ by the IUCN (IUCN 2025), its breeding habitats are
increasingly subjected to pressures such as habitat degradation, urban
expansion, agricultural intensification, and broader environmental change.
Rather than indicating population declines, these pressures manifest as
localised threats to nesting sites, breeding success, and habitat quality,
underscoring the need to understand reproductive performance and
habitat-specific responses of the species.
In the present study, we assessed
new information on key aspects of Red-wattled Lapwing nesting ecology,
including nest-site selection, clutch size, incubation characteristics, causes
of nesting failure, and overall breeding success. Specifically, we examine
differences in nesting and reproductive success across rural, peri-urban, and
urban landscapes to assess how anthropogenic environments influence
reproductive outcomes. By evaluating nesting success in relation to predation
pressure and microclimatic conditions at nest sites, this study aims to
identify habitat-specific factors that govern nest survival and breeding
performance. Given the limited research on urban adaptations of ground-nesting
birds in central India, this work addresses an important knowledge gap by
examining how rapid land-use change in and around Indore, Madhya Pradesh,
shapes the reproductive strategies of the Red-wattled Lapwing. The findings
provide insights into life-history traits and habitat-specific constraints that
can inform targeted conservation and habitat-management strategies in rapidly
urbanising landscapes.
Materials
and Methods
Study Area
The study focused on three sites
around Indore (Images 2–4), Madhya Pradesh, India, representing urban,
peri-urban, and rural landscape types. The urban site was Holkar Science
College (22.695° N, 75.871° E; 587 m elevation), characterised by dense
built-up structures, high human activity, and frequent landscape modification
typical of an urban environment. The peri-urban site, Rau (22.639° N, 75.803°
E; ~587 m elevation), represents a low-density urban fringe dominated by
agricultural fields interspersed with residential development, roads, and
construction activity, reflecting a transitional landscape influenced by both
natural and anthropogenic factors. The rural site was Jamli Village (22.524° N,
75.694° E; 577 m elevation), consisting primarily of agricultural farmland with
limited infrastructure and minimal human disturbance, representing a
predominantly natural rural setting. Together, these three sites form a
gradient of increasing human influence, allowing assessment of how urbanisation
affects the nesting ecology of the Red-wattled Lapwing.
Field Observations and Data
Collection
During the breeding season
(March–July 2024), field observations were conducted on alternate days. Study
areas were systematically scanned using binoculars to locate nests, which were
identified based on nesting cues such as adult incubation behaviour, alarm
calls, or repeated site use. This visual scanning approach is commonly employed
for ground-nesting or exposed-nesting birds (Escalona-Segura et al. 2022). A
total of 45 nests were monitored during the study period, including 20 nests at
Jamli, 15 at Rau, and 10 at Holkar Science College. Various breeding
parameters, including nest size, egg size, and nest depth, were recorded
(Figure 1), following methodologies comparable to those used by Vanadzina et
al. (2022). Nest and egg dimensions were measured using a 15-cm ruler carefully
placed near the nest, ensuring minimal disturbance and prioritising the safety
of eggs and chicks. These measurements allowed comparison of egg length and
width across nests and habitats. Nests and eggs were photographed using a Nikon
Coolpix P1000 camera to document nest structure, egg placement, and site
characteristics for visual records (Image 5).
Data Analysis
Apparent nesting success was calculated
for each habitat by dividing the number of successful nests by the total number
of nests observed at each site. Reproductive success was assessed as the
proportion of fledged chicks relative to the total number of eggs laid,
following established methods described by Vijayan (1980) and Jehle et al.
(2004). To obtain a more robust estimate of nest survival, Mayfield’s (1975)
method was applied to calculate daily survival rates (DSR) and overall nest
survival across the incubation and nestling periods. Variance and standard
errors of survival estimates were calculated following the approaches outlined
by Johnson (1979) and Hensler (1985) to assess the precision of survival
probabilities. Correlation analysis (Pearson’s correlation coefficient) was
used to examine the relationship between nest size, egg size, and fledgling
success (see Data Analysis section). Reproductive performance metrics,
including nesting success, reproductive success, and survival estimates, were
summarised using descriptive statistics (mean, median, and range) and presented
in tables and graphical form to facilitate comparison among rural, peri-urban,
and urban habitats.
Result
and Discussion
Breeding Phenology
The breeding season of the
Red-wattled Lapwing began in March and continued until July across all
habitats, consistent with reports from other regions of India (Ali & Ripley
1998; Kabir & Iqbal 2018; Arya et al. 2023). Egg-laying peaked in April at
all sites, but the timing varied across habitats. In the rural site (Jamli),
peak laying occurred in early April, whereas in the peri-urban (Rau) and urban
(Holkar Science College) sites, it occurred in mid-April.
Previous studies indicate that egg
laying in this species usually starts from late March to early April, with peak
activity in April or early May, depending on regional conditions (Ali &
Ripley 1998; Kabir & Iqbal 2018; Choudhary & Chishty 2022). The earlier
peak observed in Jamli, therefore, corresponds to the expected breeding period
under relatively undisturbed conditions. In contrast, the delayed peak in
peri-urban and urban habitats likely reflects the influence of anthropogenic
disturbance and altered microclimates. Similar habitat-related shifts in
breeding timing have been reported in semi-urban and agricultural landscapes
(Gupta & Saxena 2023; Kadam & Jadhav 2023). Earlier breeding in rural
habitats may provide advantages by reducing exposure of eggs and chicks to
extreme summer temperatures and disturbance later in the season (Chen et al.
2023).
Nesting Strategies
Red-wattled Lapwings showed
different nesting strategies in the three habitats. Nests in rural Jamli were
usually scraped into the ground in open fields or along riverbanks, where the
eggs and chicks were camouflaged by soil, stones, and surrounding vegetation.
This habitat had low human disturbance and relatively stable environmental
conditions, which provided favourable conditions for nesting and chick
survival. In suburban Rau, nests were recorded mainly in agricultural fields
located near residential areas, roads, and construction sites (Table 1). This
indicates an intermediate nesting strategy between rural and urban habitats.
The presence of farmland provided suitable nesting sites, but increased human
activity and higher predation pressure created additional risks compared to
rural areas.
Urban nesting by Red-wattled
Lapwings at Holkar Science College showed a clear behavioural adaptation, with
several nests observed on rooftops and other elevated structures. This shift
was likely due to increased pressure from terrestrial predators such as stray
dogs and mongooses. Rooftop nesting introduced new threats, including frequent
human disturbance, high surface temperatures, reduced shade, and strong
exposure to sunlight, which together create extreme microclimatic conditions.
In addition, urban nests were more vulnerable to aerial predators such as crows
and kites. Behaviour such as placing pebbles around eggs to prevent them from
rolling off the roof indicated the species’ ability to adjust to urban
conditions. Despite these adaptations, urban habitats remained less suitable
for successful nesting due to continued disturbance, predation, and harsh
microclimatic conditions (Gering & Blair 1999; Sethi et al. 2014).
Reproductive Performance and Nest
Success
Habitat type clearly influenced
nesting and reproductive success (Table 2, Figure 2). In rural Jamli, nesting success
was 90%, with 18 successful nests out of 20, and reproductive success was 80%,
indicating favourable conditions for chick survival. Clutch size was generally
four eggs per nest, and no damaged eggs or dead chicks were observed during
monitoring. In suburban Rau, nesting success was slightly higher (93.33%), with
14 successful nests out of 15, but reproductive success was lower (75%),
suggesting higher chick loss before fledging. Clutch size in most nests was
also four eggs, and no direct egg damage or chick mortality was recorded in the
field, although human disturbance and predator presence were more frequent than
in rural areas. Urban Holkar Science College showed the lowest nesting success
(70%), with seven successful nests out of 10, and reproductive success was 60%.
Most nests contained four eggs, with one nest having three eggs. Although no
dead chicks or damaged eggs were directly observed, urban nests experienced
greater human disturbance, higher exposure to aerial predators (mainly crows
and kites), and extreme microclimatic conditions such as high surface
temperatures and direct sunlight. These results indicate that urban habitats
are less suitable for successful reproduction than rural and peri-urban areas.
How Nest Size, Egg Size, and
Fledgling Success Correlate
Nesting factors showed variable
relationships with fledgling success depending on habitats (Table 3–4, Supplementary Tables S1–S3, Figure 2). In the rural site
(Jamli), a moderate positive correlation was observed between egg size and
fledgling success (r = 0.51), suggesting that larger eggs were associated with
higher chick survival under stable environmental conditions. A weak positive
correlation was also found between nest size and fledgling success (r = 0.12),
indicating that slightly larger nests may provide minor benefits in terms of
protection and microclimate stability. Similar associations between egg size
and chick survival have been reported in Red-wattled Lapwing and other
ground-nesting birds, where larger eggs produce heavier and more viable chicks
(Kabir & Iqbal 2018; Yadav & Sharma 2022).
In the suburban site (Rau), weak
negative correlations were found between nest size and fledgling success (r =
−0.35) and between egg size and fledgling success (r = −0.20). These results
suggest that the potential advantages of larger nests or eggs may be offset by
higher levels of human disturbance and predation pressure in peri-urban
environments. In the urban site (Holkar Science College), weak negative
correlations were observed between nest size and fledgling success (r = −0.12)
and between egg size and fledgling success (r = −0.16). This indicates that
environmental stressors in urban habitats, such as high surface temperatures,
frequent human activity, and increased aerial predation, may reduce the
benefits normally associated with larger nests and eggs. Similar reductions in
reproductive advantages under urban conditions have been reported for other
ground-nesting species, where microclimatic stress and disturbance limit chick
survival regardless of egg or nest size (Gering & Blair 1999; Chen et al.
2023).
Conservation Implications
The Red-wattled Lapwing represents a
clear example of how a ground-nesting bird has adapted to high levels of stress
caused by urbanisation. However, urban habitats also pose considerable risks,
including lower reproductive success and increased exposure to human
disturbance and other environmental pressures. As nesting success was higher in
rural and peri-urban habitats than in densely urbanised areas, these landscapes
should be given priority in conservation planning to ensure long-term
population persistence. Protection of natural nesting sites in farmlands and
grasslands is essential, along with the restoration of degraded habitats within
cities. In urban areas, management actions such as providing rooftop nesting
platforms that mimic natural ground conditions may help reduce risks associated
with human disturbance and extreme microclimatic conditions. Long-term
monitoring of food availability, predator dynamics, and levels of human
activity is necessary to better understand how the species responds to ongoing
environmental change and urban expansion (Sethi et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2023;
Anand et al. 2025). Incorporating these factors into conservation strategies
may improve breeding success and overall survival of the Red-wattled Lapwing
across different habitat types.
Conclusion
The results show that outcomes of
nest site selection in the Red-wattled Lapwing differ according to habitat
type, reflecting how the species adjusts its breeding strategy across rural,
peri-urban, and urban environments. The present findings underline the
importance of conserving rural and semi-urban habitats through the protection
of farmlands and grasslands and by restoring degraded sites. In urban areas,
the development of wildlife-friendly structures such as artificial nesting
platforms and green roofs may help support breeding populations. Beyond its
relevance to this species, the study contributes to a broader understanding of
how ground-nesting birds respond to human-dominated landscapes and limited
adaptations. Given the continued loss of natural habitats, conservation
measures that focus on maintaining suitable breeding environments are essential
for sustaining biodiversity in increasingly urban regions.
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