Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2026 | 18(8): 29401–29417
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10045.18.8.29401-29417
#10045 | Received 10 July 2025 | Final received 05 June 2026| Finally
accepted 24 June 2026
Avifaunal diversity of the
central Western Ghats in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka, India
Rounak Patra 1 , Nonita Rana 2 ,
S.J.D. Frank 3 &
Govindan Veeraswami Gopi 4
1 Department of Biological
Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
1–4 Wildlife Institute of India,
Chandrabani, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248001, India.
1 rpatra1@lsu.edu, 2 nonitarana04@gmail.com,
3 frank.sadrack@gmail.com, 4 gopigv@wii.gov.in
(corresponding author)
Editor: H. Byju, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Date
of publication: 26 August 2026 (online & print)
Citation: Patra,
R., N. Rana, S.J.D. Frank & G.V. Gopi (2026). Avifaunal
diversity of the central Western Ghats in Uttara Kannada, Karnataka,
India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 18(8): 29401–29417. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10045.18.8.29401-29417
Copyright: © Patra et al. 2026. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in
any medium by providing adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of
publication.
Funding: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Author details: Rounak Patra (rpatra1@lsu.edu) is a research
fellow in the Department of Biological Sciences at Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, USA. His research focuses on frugivory, plant-bird mutualisms, and
the functional diversity of montane frugivore communities, with broader interests in community ecology and species interactions. Nonita Rana (nonitarana04@gmail.com) is an
early- career researcher at the Wildlife Institute of India. Her research
focuses on avian ecology, biodiversity assessment, and conservation, with particular interests in the Himalayan ecosystem. She is currently
engaged in the conservation and ecological study of the Critically Endangered
White-bellied Heron Ardea insignis. Dr. Frank S.J.D. (frank.sadrack@gmail.com) is a scientific consultant at the Conservation Advisory and Policy Cell, Wildlife Institute of India.
His research focuses on wetland ecology, agroforestry, ecosystem services and
biodiversity conservation, and his current work encompasses multidisciplinary
aspects of conservation biology, including biodiversity assessment
and conservation planning. Dr. Govindan Veeraswami Gopi (gopigv@wii.gov.in) is scientist-F
and professor at the Wildlife Institute of India. His work contributes to
wildlife conservation through research, policy support, and
capacity building in India. His work has informed biodiversity conservation,
protected area management, and environmental decision-making across diverse
ecosystems, including the Himalaya, wetlands, and coastal regions. He serves as
the nodal officer of the Conservation Advisory and Policy
Cell at WII, through mentoring, teaching, and advisory roles, he continues to
strengthen evidence-based conservation and management. Dr. Gopi is also a
member of several IUCN Species Survival Commission Specialist Groups.
Author contributions: Conceptualisation: GVG. Data curation: RP, NR. Formal analysis: RP,
NR. Funding acquisition: GVG. Investigation: GVG. Methodology: RP, NR, SJDF,
GVG. Supervision: GVG. Project administration: GVG. Validation: GVG, SJDF, RP,
NR. Visualisation: GVG, RP, NR, SJDF. Writing – original draft: RP, NR.
Writing – review and editing: GVG, SJDF, RP, NR.
Acknowledgements: We thank the director and dean,
Wildlife Institute of India for their guidance and support. We extend our
sincere thanks to the PCCF (HoFF), PCCF (WL) &
CWLW, APCCF (WL), Karnataka Forest Department for the permission to carry out
the field survey. We thank the field director, Kali Tiger Reserve, deputy
conservators of forests of Karwar and Yellapur forest divisions for the permission and logistical support during the field work. We are
thankful to the ACFs, RFOs, DyRFOs, guards, watchers, and other forest
department staff of all three forest divisions for their inputs and
accompanying us during the field work. We are thankful
to Mr. G. Mohandas, Mr. A.L.V.V. Reddy, and Mr. K. Harish from NPCIL Kaiga for
their valuable insights on the avian diversity of the Kaiga region. We would
also like to thank our teammates Mr. Avinash Yadav, Mr. Toushif P.K., and Mr.
Karthy Shivapushnam.
Abstract: Birds are present across diverse
ecosystems and play critical roles as seed dispersers, pest controllers, and
indicators of environmental change. Documenting avian diversity in a landscape
is essential for recognising its ecological significance, identifying priority
areas for conservation, and safeguarding critical habitats. Here, we present a
baseline checklist of the avifaunal diversity of the ecologically sensitive
areas of the central Western Ghats during the summer season, encompassing the
forests of Karwar Forest Division, Yellapur Forest Division, and Kali Tiger
Reserve. Using a combination of systematic grid-based point count and
opportunistic surveys, we documented a total of 206 species belonging to 66
families and 18 orders. Species richness was highest in the semi evergreen forest, followed by moist
deciduous, and tropical evergreen forest. We recorded 20 species endemic to the
Indian subcontinent, of which 13 species were exclusively endemic to the
Western Ghats. Our findings provide valuable baseline data for future ecological
assessments and conservation planning in this ecologically sensitive region of
the Western Ghats.
Keywords: Biodiversity hotspot, bird
assemblage, conservation, ecologically sensitive areas, endemic, Kali Tiger
Reserve, Non-Protected Area, Protected Area, species richness.
Introduction
Birds occupy a wide range of
habitats globally and play vital ecological roles such as seed dispersal,
pollination, pest control, and scavenging (Ali 2002; Sekercioglu 2006; Whelan
et al. 2008; Archana et al. 2024). Due to their mobility and sensitivity to
environmental changes, birds serve as key indicators for monitoring habitat
quality and biodiversity trends (Menon & Shahabuddin 2021; Aarif et al.
2025). In India, recent assessments indicate that nearly 60% of bird species
show long-term declines, with 40% currently experiencing population reductions
(State of India’s Birds 2023). These trends highlight the urgency of
documenting avifaunal diversity, particularly in ecologically sensitive
regions.
In particular, tropical and subtropical
forests around the world support an exceedingly high number of birds as
compared to other regions (Pillay et al. 2021). However, anthropogenic
disturbances such as deforestation, logging, and the conversion of forests to
agroforests or urban areas have resulted in the disruption of bird communities
in forests (Barlow et al. 2006; Sekercioglu 2012; Matuoka et al. 2020). The
Western Ghats, one of the eight ‘hottest’ biodiversity hotspots in the world
(Myers et al. 2000), support a rich bird community shaped by diverse topography
and climatic variations. Within the Western Ghats, Gadgil et al. (2011) defined
ESA as areas “that are ecologically and economically important, but vulnerable
even to mild disturbances, and hence demand careful management”. The 6th
Draft Notification of the Western Ghats ESA identifies an area of 20,668 km2
in the state of Karnataka to be ecologically sensitive, which majorly
encompasses the mountains of the Ghats (Gazette of India 2024). Within this
region, the Uttara Kannada district contains the largest contiguous tropical
forests in peninsular India and harbours 441 of Karnataka’s 556 recorded bird
species (Praveen et al. 2025). While several studies have documented avian
diversity in different parts of this district (Davidson 1898a,b; Daniels et al.
1990, 1992; Barve & Warrier 2013; Ramachandra et al. 2013; Bhat &
Ganesh 2014), very few surveys have been conducted in the Anshi-Dandeli area (Kotangale & Ghosh 2000; Puttaraju 2014), which remains
largely unexplored in terms of its avifaunal diversity. Thus, the present study
aims to provide an overview of the region’s bird diversity and establish a
baseline dataset for future studies aimed towards addressing avian conservation
efforts within this landscape.
Study
Area
The study was carried out in the
forests of the central Western Ghats in the Uttara Kannada District of
Karnataka. The area spanned across three forest divisions: Karwar Forest
Division, Kali Tiger Reserve, and Yellapur Forest Division (bounded by the
latitudes 14.691°–15.016° N and the longitudes 74.286°–74.627° E) (Image 1).
The landscape is primarily dominated by southern tropical wet evergreen and
semi evergreen forests. However, the eastern portion of the Yellapur Forest
Division transitions to tropical dry deciduous forests. The Kali Tiger Reserve
(KTR) is a critical part of this region, encompassing two key protected areas:
Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary (886.41 km2) and Anshi National Park
(417.34 km2). Together, these contiguous areas form the “Dandeli-Anshi
Tiger Reserve” (DATR), renamed as the KTR, which encompasses a total area of
over 1,300 km2. Kali Tiger Reserve is a part of a larger contiguous
forest tract extending over 10,000 km2 across the states of
Karnataka and Goa. The tiger reserve serves as the major catchment for the Kali
River and its tributaries, Nagzari and Kaneri. Geographically, KTR shares its
northern boundary with Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary of Belgaum Division. To the
east, it borders the Haliyal Division, while to the south and south-east, it
adjoins the reserved forests of Yellapur and Karwar divisions. The western
boundary connects to protected areas in Goa.
In addition to the main river
Kali, many streams and rivulets drain the heavy rainfall of the area into the
Arabian Sea. The climate here is characterised by hot and humid summer and warm
winter with the mean annual temperature varying between 25°C and 28°C. The mean
annual rainfall exceeds 2,000 mm in most of the areas. The region comprises of
predominantly red and laterite soils on the leeward side of the Sahyadris
(Western Ghats) and alluvium-derived soils in the coastal plains; however, in
regions where the native forest cover remains undisturbed, continuous litter
deposition and organic matter accumulation contribute to the humus-rich,
well-drained soils that support high levels of plant productivity and overall
biodiversity. Based on the classification of Champion & Seth (1968), we
classified the vegetation within our study area into three major natural forest
types. Additionally, two anthropogenically modified categories—mixed forests
(secondary forests) and plantations—were recognised to account for variation in
land-use history and vegetation structure across the landscape. Brief descriptions of these categories are
given below:
Tropical evergreen forests –
southern tropical wet evergreen forests (1A/C4: West coast tropical evergreen
forests) (Champion & Seth 1968) occur in areas with high rainfall and
minimal dry periods, particularly within the KTR and parts of Karwar Division.
Characterised by a multi-storied structure with dense canopy cover, they
harbour a rich assemblage of evergreen tree species such as Dipterocarpus
indicus, Myristica dactyloides, Hopea parviflora, and Vateria
indica forming critical habitats for endemic avian and arboreal species.
Semi-evergreen forests – southern
tropical semi-evergreen forests (2A/C2: West coast semi evergreen forests)
(Champion & Seth 1968) forms an ecotonal zone between evergreen and moist
deciduous forests, often found in areas subject to partial disturbance or on
lower slopes. Species composition includes a mixture of evergreen and deciduous
elements, with characteristic trees such as Terminalia paniculata,
Lagerstroemia microcarpa, and Tectona grandis as common species.
They are accompanied by evergreen species like Diospyros candolleana and
Cinnamomum malabatrum, which eventually mix and result in a
semi-deciduous canopy. As a result of seasonal canopy dynamics, semi evergreen
forests have more diverse understories that consist of light-loving and
shade-tolerant species.
Moist deciduous forests –
southern Indian moist deciduous forests (3B/C2: Southern moist mixed deciduous
forests) (Champion & Seth 1968) are found primarily in the eastern parts of
Yellapur Forest Division and lower rainfall zones, these forests are
characterised by species such as Tectona grandis, Terminalia
tomentosa, Xylia xylocarpa, and Dalbergia latifolia. They
often occur in a mosaic with semi-evergreen patches. Shrubs, small trees, and
saplings are seen dominating the understory layers by species like the Indian
gooseberry Phyllanthus emblica or the Flame of the Forest Butea
monosperma. Along with that, the presence of lianas and epiphytes further
complements the vertical stratification of these forests. Woody vines, or
lianas, such as Bauhinia racemosa, are typical components within the
tree vegetation. The relatively open canopy structure provides habitat for a
different set of avifauna compared to evergreen forests.
Mixed forests (Secondary
forests): In several parts of the landscape, especially near villages and
degraded tracts, forests have undergone secondary succession, resulting in a
heterogeneous ‘mixed forest’. These are characterised by a combination of species
from the semi evergreen and moist deciduous categories, often regenerating
after selective logging, shifting cultivation, or fire. They provide important
foraging grounds for generalist bird species.
Plantations
Large patches of monoculture
plantations are also present within the study area, particularly of Teak Tectona
grandis, Acacia Acacia auriculiformis, and Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.
While structurally different from natural forests, these habitats nevertheless
support certain bird species adapted to modified environments, though overall
diversity tends to be lower compared to natural forest types.
Methods
We conducted bird surveys over a
five-month period from February 2024 to June 2024. This period defined the
entire summer season (March to May) and the onset of the monsoon (June). A
systematic point count survey methodology was employed, following Bibby et al.
(2000). The study area was divided into a grid system comprising 225 grids,
each measuring 2 x 2 km. Due to the short duration of the survey, logistical
challenges and accessibility of dense forests based on the forest department
staff availability and recommendations, we randomly chose 40% of the grids for
sampling, ensuring coverage across all three forest divisions. Within the selected
grids, a total of 118 survey station were established (Image 1, Table 1). At
each survey station, point counts were conducted with a fixed radius of 100 m.
Each point count was conducted for a standardised duration of 10 min, with a
minimum distance of 400 m maintained between survey points to minimise the risk
of double counting individuals. Thus, the overall duration of surveys for point
count was limited to 1,180 min, which corresponds to approximately 20 h.
Additionally, we conducted opportunistic bird surveys across different habitats
to maximise sampling effort for forest, riverine and nocturnal birds as well.
For this, we specifically relied on daily eBird lists to keep a track of the
species recorded during this period when point counts were not being conducted.
During this period, a total of 218 eBird lists were created corresponding to a
total survey effort of approximately 94 h (approximately 5,626 min). Our
surveys were scheduled during peak bird activity periods - early morning (0630
h) and late afternoon (1600 h) to maximise bird detections. All bird species
observed or heard during the survey were identified and recorded based on
visual and auditory cues. Field observations were conducted using Nikon
Prostaff 7s 8 x 42 binoculars, and photographs were taken of most species for
documentation with a Nikon P900 and Nikon D5600. To minimise potential observer
bias during point count surveys, two trained observers were consistently
involved at each sampling location. One observer was responsible for detecting
and identifying bird species and documenting detections, while the second
observer simultaneously recorded species identity, counts, and associated
metadata for each point count station. This division of roles helped reduce
errors related to miscounting, double counting, or overlooking individuals,
thereby increasing the reliability of the dataset. Species identification was
done by standard field guides (Ali 2002; Grimmett et al. 2011; Billerman et al.
2022). For taxonomy and nomenclature, we particularly followed the eBird and
Clements et al. (2024) and Praveen et al. (2025). We further categorised the
species as Resident (R), Summer Migrant (SM), Winter Migrant (WM) or Local
Migrant (LM) based on field observations and descriptions provided in Grimmett
et al. (2011) and SoIB (2023). Conservation status and legal protection were
determined according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2024) and the
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2022.
Analysis
We evaluated key metrics such as
species richness and total species abundance across the entire survey area by
categorising the habitats into different forest types, viz., semi evergreen
(Southern tropical semi evergreen forests), tropical evergreen (Southern
tropical wet evergreen forests), moist deciduous (Southern Indian moist
deciduous forests), mixed forests (Secondary forests), and plantations. In
addition to species richness and abundance, we calculated Shannon diversity
index to quantify species diversity, taking into account both the abundance and
evenness of the species present (Shannon & Weaver 1963).
Shannon - Wiener index H’ = −∑pi × ln(pi)
where ∑= Sum, pi = proportion of
the entire community made up of species ‘i’, ln is the natural logarithm, and S
is the species richness or the total number of species observed in a community.
We also calculated the maximum
possible diversity (Hmax) to determine the theoretical maximum diversity.
Furthermore, we used Pielou’s evenness Index (Pielou 1966) to assess the
evenness of species distribution. The index was calculated as: Pielou’s
evenness index J = H′/ln(S), where H’ is the Shannon diversity index and S is
the total number of species. ln(S) is denoted as Hmax or maximum possible
diversity. In order to assess the adequacy of our survey effort, we generated a
species accumulation curve based on our observed species richness. To examine
patterns of species dominance and relative abundance within the bird
communities, we also included a rank-abundance curve across different habitat
types. Furthermore, we compared the species detection between the communities
of different forest types to understand the preliminary ecological patterns
associated with habitat variation. All statistical analyses and visualisations
were conducted using the R statistical software (R Core Team 2024).
Results
A total of
206 avian species were documented, representing 66 families and 18 orders
during the survey (Table 2). Passerines comprised 49.75% (103 species) of the
total species recorded. Among the non-Passeriformes, the family Accipitridae
exhibited the highest diversity with 12 species, followed by Ardeidae (11) and
Picidae (8). Within the Passeriformes, the family Muscicapidae was the most
diverse, with 12 species. Notably, 20 of these species are endemic to the
Indian subcontinent, and 13 are exclusively endemic to the Western Ghats (Table
3). Based on point-count data (excluding opportunistic records), we recorded
2,674 individuals representing 147 species. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index
for the study area was H’ = 4.24, and Pielou’s evenness Index was J’ = 0.85,
indicating a relatively even distribution of species rather than dominance by a
few taxa. These indices suggest a diverse bird community across the region, but
the results should be viewed as preliminary, given the limited temporal
coverage and replication.
Forest-specific H’ and J’ are provided in Table 4.
In our
dataset, a higher number of species was observed in semi evergreen forests (113
species) compared to moist deciduous (102 species), and tropical evergreen
forests (87 species). However, given that the surveys were restricted to one
summer season, with incomplete coverage of all grids and replication, these
results should be interpreted cautiously as preliminary patterns rather than
definitive differences among forest types (Table 4). Further, based on our
point-count surveys, we observed a comparatively higher species abundance in
the semi evergreen forest (970 individuals), followed by moist deciduous forest
(713 individuals), and tropical evergreen forest (701 individuals). The boxplot
reflects these preliminary patterns observed within our study area (Image 2).
In particular, semi evergreen forests exhibited the highest median and the
widest spread of values, including several extreme outliers, suggesting that
this forest type may harbour particularly rich bird assemblages and site-level
heterogeneity. In contrast, plantations reflected the lower species detections,
with a narrow range and low median values, which may be reflective of
relatively poor and uniform habitat quality for bird communities, though this
could be a result of less sampling effort in these habitats. Moist deciduous
forests had a moderately intermediate range of species detection per point with
wider variability than mixed forests, suggesting that they may provide
important resources for avifauna, but with differences depending on local site
conditions.
Additionally,
with the help of a species rank abundance curve, we also found that
White-cheeked Barbet Psilopogon viridis was most abundant in semi
evergreen forests and tropical evergreen forests (Image 3). Apart from that,
Purple Sunbird Cinnyris asiaticus and Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus
paradiseus were the most abundant species in moist deciduous and mixed
forest types, respectively. Although these patterns highlight possible
differences in richness and abundance among forest types, they are best
interpreted as indicative trends. Since the survey was restricted to a single
season with incomplete spatial coverage and no replication, our results might
limit the robustness of cross-habitat comparisons. Future studies with
multi-season sampling and greater replication will be necessary to confirm
whether the patterns reported here reflect broader ecological differences among
forest types.
Status of
Foraging Guilds of Birds
Based on
the heterogeneity of the foraging ecology of birds or how different groups of
birds exploit the same class of food resources within the study area, the
status of birds was assessed. Eight different categories of foraging guilds
were identified, including carnivorous, frugivorous, granivorous, herbivorous,
insectivorous, molluscivorous, omnivorous, and piscivorous birds. Of the 206
species, insectivorous birds were detected in the highest numbers (65),
followed by omnivorous (51), carnivorous (46), and frugivorous (29) birds
(Image 4). Interestingly, only a single species of molluscivore (Anastomus
oscitans) was recorded, which specialises in feeding extensively on snails,
especially apple snails (Pila).
Migratory Status of Birds
Karnataka lies along the Central
Asian Flyway, a well-defined pathway for migratory birds traveling between
their breeding grounds in Siberia and their non-breeding grounds in India and
other regions. Based on the survey period, which typically started from the end
of February and lasted till June, bird species were classified into four
different categories of migration: residents (present throughout the year),
summer migrants, winter migrants, and local migrants (Grimmett et al. 2011;
Billerman et al. 2022; SoIB 2023). Of the 206 species observed, 174 (84.54%)
were categorised as resident, while 32 species (15.45%) were migratory. The
migratory species included 27 winter visitors, one summer visitor, and four
locally migrating species. During the survey period, only 27 winter migrants
were observed, compared to the total list of 80 recorded thus far (based on
secondary sources and the consolidated checklist).
Species of Conservation
Significance
The study area hosts a diverse
range of bird species, many of which are of significant conservation concern.
Table 5 highlights categories under various conservation framework for the 206
species recorded from the study area.
IUCN Red List Categories
Least Concern (LC): A majority of
190 species are classified as ‘Least Concern’, indicating that they currently
face no immediate threat of extinction.
Vulnerable (VU): Four species,
namely, Nilgiri Wood Pigeon Columba elphinstonii, River Tern Sterna
aurantia, Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus, and Great Hornbill
Buceros bicornis, are categorised as ‘Vulnerable’, reflecting a high
risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT): Eight
species are categorised as ‘Near Threatened’, meaning they are close to
qualifying for a threatened category in the near future.
Not Evaluated (NE): Four species
including Cinereous Tit Parus cinereous, Eastern Cattle-Egret Ardea
coromanda, Malabar Starling Sturnia blythii, and Malabar Flameback Chrysocolaptes
socialis, were not currently evaluated or recognised by the IUCN Red List.
National Level Legal Protections
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment
Act 2022, Schedule I: According to the recent Wildlife Amendment 2022, 29
species found in the study area are listed under Schedule I. This designation
affords them the highest level of protection under Indian law, reflecting their
critical conservation status.
State Level Priorities
Apart from the IUCN Red List,
based on the latest report of State of India’s Birds 2023, species included in
the list of high priority, such as the Osprey Pandion haliaetus, Blue
Rock-Thrush Monticola solitarius, and Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus
indicus are of high conservation concern.
Discussion
Our study represents the first
attempt to establish a baseline inventory of avifaunal diversity in the
Kaiga-Karwar region of Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka, where 206 species
were recorded over the course of the survey period. Furthermore, combining primary
data with secondary sources based on eBird and Kaiga Bird Marathon data, we
found that the area harbours a total of 325 species belonging to 20 orders and
76 families (Refer to supplementary section for consolidated checklist). This
corresponds to 58% of the birds found in the state of Karnataka and 23% of the
total number of bird species recorded across the Indian subcontinent (till the
last checklist update) (Praveen et al. 2025). Considering the short period of
the survey and limitations in accessing certain remote areas within the study
area, our baseline survey resulted in (excluding opportunistic sightings) 175
resident species and 20 endemic species, out of which 13 are exclusively
endemic to the Western Ghats. In terms of species richness, the species
accumulation curve shows that the sampling efforts within the study area appear
sufficient to capture most of the species (Image 5). However, there is a
likelihood of detecting some more species with additional sampling. The overall
Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H’ = 4.24) indicates a highly diverse bird
community, a finding consistent with the ecological significance of this
landscape as part of a global biodiversity hotspot. The relatively high
Pielou’s evenness value (J’ = 0.85) further suggests that bird communities were
not dominated by a few species, but rather that abundances were distributed
relatively evenly across the recorded assemblages. Together, these indices
indicate a preliminary trend towards a structurally balanced community. Based
on our dataset, the results from the boxplots revealed higher median detection
and wider variability in semi evergreen and tropical evergreen forests, whereas
plantations indicated a comparatively lower and more uniform detection. Even
though our results are preliminary, they are broadly consistent with earlier
studies from the Western Ghats, which demonstrate that structurally complex
forest habitats support higher bird assemblages compared to simplified or
monoculture landscapes (Raman 2006; Ranganathan et al. 2010; Karanth et al.
2016). Specifically, indications of an elevated number of detections in semi
evergreen and evergreen forests within these forested areas also indicate
patterns reported by Hariharan et al. (2022), who found that mixed-species flocks
preferentially used semi evergreen and evergreen habitats over more degraded
habitats, reflecting the higher resource diversity and structural complexity of
these forests. Together, these studies underscore the conservation importance
of semi evergreen and evergreen forests in sustaining diverse avian communities
within the Western Ghats.
Our rank-abundance curve based on
our baseline survey efforts showed the dominance of White-cheeked Barbet Psilopogon
viridis, an obligate frugivore in both semi evergreen and tropical
evergreen forests, while the abundance of Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus
paradiseus was higher in the mixed forests. The dominance of medium-sized
frugivore species, such as the White-cheeked Barbet, highlights the importance
of fruit-bearing trees, as this species primarily feeds on fruits and plays a
key role in seed dispersal. Overall, 29 frugivore species, such as the Malabar
Imperial-Pigeon Ducula cuprea, Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon, Grey-headed Bulbul Microtarsus
priocephalus, Flame-throated Bulbul Rubigula gularis, were also
observed in a variety of habitats within the study area. Although our data are
preliminary and limited in temporal and spatial replication, the presence of a
diverse frugivore assemblage across multiple habitats suggests that fruiting
resources may play an important role in structuring local bird communities.
Similar patterns have been reported elsewhere in the Western Ghats, where both
forest cover and fruit crop size were shown to influence frugivore visitation
and seed dispersal services (Gopal et al. 2020).
Furthermore, the semi evergreen
and tropical evergreen forests of the Anshi-Dandeli region are critical
habitats for large frugivores such as the Great Hornbill, Malabar Pied Hornbill
Anthracoceros coronatus, and Malabar Grey Hornbill. According to Mudappa
& Raman (2009), the Kali (Anshi-Dandeli) area is one of the key regions for
the conservation of the Malabar Pied Hornbill. Besides the protected areas, the
Great Hornbills have a stronghold in the Tiger Reserve as well as adjacent
reserve forests, where key nesting and feeding habitats are available. During
the present survey, a congregation of 14 foraging individuals of Great
Hornbills were observed at a time on different Ficus spp. near Hartuga
Village. Moreover, the trees adjacent to the riverine areas, especially around
Kali, act as major roosting sites for Malabar Pied Hornbills (Sneha &
Davidar 2011).
The Kali River system further
supports a diverse assemblage of riverine bird species, many of which are
likely dependent on aquatic invertebrates and fish found within this habitat.
Notably, species belonging to the families of Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, and
Phalacrocoracidae were also observed during the survey period. Additionally,
several riverine raptors, including the Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus,
White-bellied Sea-Eagle Icthyophaga leucogaster, Black Kite Milvus
migrans, and Osprey, were regularly recorded roosting and hunting across
multiple locations. Interestingly, we also observed an intriguing behaviour of
mass congregation of these raptors near the Kadra Dam spillway, particularly in
the afternoons on weekends, coinciding with the large-scale dumping of poultry
waste. This pattern may be suggestive of a strong association between raptor
activity and anthropogenic food subsidies in the region, which requires further
evaluation in the future.
In addition to our systematic
surveys, opportunistic observations yielded records of cryptic species such as
Malayan Night Heron Gorsachius melanolophus, and the Sri Lankan
Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger. However, some species commonly
reported from the region, including Legge’s Hawk Eagle Nisaetus kelaarti,
Black-backed Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx erithaca, and Blue-eared Kingfisher Alcedo
meninting along with resident-endemic species such as the White-bellied
Blue Flycatcher Cyornis pallidipes, White-bellied Treepie Dendrocitta
leucogastra, and Rufous Babbler Argya subrufa were not detected
during our primary survey. This likely reflects seasonal and methodological limitations
rather than a true absence.
Migratory Birds
The Western Ghats, with its
diverse forest types and perennial water sources, serve as a critical stopover
site for many species. For the birds travelling between their breeding grounds
in the Palearctic and wintering habitats in southern and southeastern Asia, the
study area acts as a vital migratory corridor. In this study, we documented 32
migratory species, including 27 winter migrants. Notable among them were
warblers such as Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum,
Large-billed Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris, and Western-crowned
Warbler Phylloscopus occipitalis. The occurrence of these species in
these areas highlights that the region is an important habitat for migratory
birds. Although our surveys documented a number of migratory species, the
richness observed was lower compared to the 80 species previously reported from
the broader region. A likely explanation for this discrepancy is the temporal
window of sampling, which was restricted to the summer months (February–June).
This period coincides with the northward migration of many winter visitors,
thereby reducing their detectability within the study area. Consequently, our
data may underrepresent the diversity and habitat use of migratory species. To
address this limitation, future studies should adopt a multi-seasonal framework
to capture temporal variation in species presence and provide a more robust
understanding of migratory dynamics in the region. The study area within the KTR,
as well as reserve forests encompassing Karwar forest division and Yellapur
forest division, plays a crucial role in safeguarding the avian biodiversity of
the Western Ghats. Our baseline surveys documented a rich diversity of bird
species across different habitats, ranging from tropical evergreen to moist
deciduous forests. Recent landscape-level analyses highlight that the Uttara
Kannada district has lost nearly a third of its evergreen forest cover in the
past four decades, accompanied by a sharp rise in built-up areas and
monoculture plantations (Ramachandra et al. 2024). Such land-use changes alter
the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems, threaten resource bases,
and reduce habitat quality for forest-dependent species. Additionally, our observations
of juvenile Grey-headed Fish Eagles Icthyophaga ichthyaetus and
White-bellied Sea Eagles Icthyophaga leucogaster during boat surveys (as
observed by RP, NR on 01st April 2024 and 04th April 2024
respectively) may indicate local breeding, suggesting that the riverine
habitats of the Kali river could serve as potential breeding sites for these
species. Overall, our findings emphasise
that safeguarding the ecological integrity of these habitats within this region
is central to conserving the avifaunal diversity of the Western Ghats. However,
the current dataset, being restricted to a single season, represents only a
preliminary baseline. Given ongoing land-use changes and the ecological
sensitivity of this landscape, long-term and multi-seasonal monitoring of bird
communities across habitat types is essential to track temporal dynamics,
detect early warning signals of change, and inform adaptive conservation
strategies.
Table 1. Number of point count
stations and size of stations sampled for birds in the study area.
|
Forest Division |
Point count plot size |
Number of point count stations |
|
Karwar Forest Division |
100 m |
85 |
|
Kali Tiger Reserve (Anshi-Dandeli
Area) |
100 m |
22 |
|
Yellapur Forest Division |
100 m |
11 |
|
Total |
118 |
|
Table 2. List of avian species
recorded from the study area.
|
Order/Family/Common name |
Scientific name |
IUCN Red List status |
WPA status |
MS |
|
Galliformes (1) |
||||
|
Phasianidae (3) |
||||
|
Indian Peafowl |
Pavo cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Red Spurfowl |
Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Grey Junglefowl |
Gallus sonneratii (Temminck, 1813) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Columbiformes (1) |
||||
|
Columbidae (8) |
||||
|
Rock Pigeon |
Columba livia (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Not sch |
R |
|
Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon |
Columba elphinstonii (Sykes, 1832) |
VU |
Sch I |
R |
|
Spotted Dove |
Spilopelia chinensis (Scopoli, 1786) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Asian Emerald Dove |
Chalcophaps indica (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon |
Treron bicinctus (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Grey-fronted Green-Pigeon |
Treron affinis (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Green Imperial-Pigeon |
Ducula aenea (Linnaeus, 1766) |
NT |
Sch II |
R |
|
Malabar Imperial-Pigeon |
Ducula cuprea (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Cuculiformes (1) |
||||
|
Cuculidae (7) |
||||
|
Greater Coucal |
Centropus sinensis (Stephens, 1815) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Blue-faced Malkoha |
Phaenicophaeus viridirostris (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Asian Koel |
Eudynamys scolopaceus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Banded Bay Cuckoo |
Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
LM |
|
Fork-tailed Drongo-Cuckoo |
Surniculus dicruroides (Hodgson, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
LM |
|
Common Hawk-Cuckoo |
Hierococcyx varius (Vahl, 1797) |
LC |
Sch II |
LM |
|
Indian Cuckoo |
Cuculus micropterus (Gould, 1838) |
LC |
Sch II |
SM |
|
Caprimulgiformes (4) |
||||
|
Caprimulgidae (2) |
||||
|
Jerdon's Nightjar |
Caprimulgus atripennis (Jerdon, 1845) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Savanna Nightjar |
Caprimulgus affinis (Horsfield, 1821) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Podargidae (1) |
||||
|
Sri Lanka Frogmouth |
Batrachostomus moniliger (Blyth, 1849) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Apodidae (4) |
||||
|
White-rumped Spinetail |
Zoonavena sylvatica (Tickell, 1846) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brown-backed Needletail |
Hirundapus giganteus (Temminck, 1825) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Little Swift |
Apus affinis (Gray, 1830) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Asian Palm Swift |
Cypsiurus balasiensis (Gray, 1829) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Hemiprocnidae (1) |
||||
|
Crested Treeswift |
Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell, 1833) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Gruiformes (1) |
||||
|
Rallidae (2) |
||||
|
Common Moorhen |
Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-breasted Waterhen |
Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Charadriiformes (4) |
||||
|
Charadriidae (3) |
||||
|
Red-wattled Lapwing |
Vanellus indicus (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Tibetan Sand-Plover |
Anarhynchus atrifrons (Wagler, 1829) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Greater Sand-Plover |
Anarhynchus leschenaultii (Lesson, 1826) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Scolopacidae (1) |
||||
|
Common Sandpiper |
Actitis hypoleucos (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Turnicidae (1) |
||||
|
Yellow-legged Buttonquail |
Turnix tanki (Blyth, 1843) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Laridae (1) |
||||
|
River Tern |
Sterna aurantia (Gray, 1831) |
VU |
Sch I |
R |
|
Ciconiiformes (1) |
||||
|
Ciconiidae (4) |
||||
|
Asian Openbill |
Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black Stork |
Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Asian Woolly-necked Stork |
Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert, 1783) |
NT |
Sch II |
R |
|
Lesser Adjutant |
Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield, 1821) |
NT |
Sch I |
R |
|
Suliformes (2) |
||||
|
Anhingidae (1) |
||||
|
Oriental Darter |
Anhinga melanogaster (Pennant, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Phalacrocoracidae (2) |
||||
|
Little Cormorant |
Microcarbo niger (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Cormorant |
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Stephens, 1826) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Pelecaniformes (2) |
||||
|
Threskiornithidae (2) |
||||
|
Glossy Ibis |
Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black-headed Ibis |
Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Ardeidae (11) |
||||
|
Black-crowned Night Heron |
Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Malayan Night Heron |
Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles, 1822) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Little Egret |
Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Western Reef-Egret |
Egretta gularis (Bosc, 1792) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Striated Heron |
Butorides striata (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Pond-Heron |
Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Eastern Cattle-Egret |
Ardea coromanda (Boddaert, 1783) |
NE |
Sch II |
R |
|
Great Egret |
Ardea alba (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Intermediate Egret |
Ardea intermedia (Wagler, 1829) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Grey Heron |
Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Purple Heron |
Ardea purpurea (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Accipitriformes (2) |
||||
|
Pandionidae (1) |
||||
|
Osprey |
Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch I |
WM |
|
Accipitridae (12) |
||||
|
Oriental Honey-buzzard |
Pernis ptilorhynchus (Temminck, 1821) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Crested Serpent-Eagle |
Spilornis cheela (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Changeable Hawk-Eagle |
Nisaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Rufous-bellied Eagle |
Lophotriorchis kienerii (de Sparre, 1835) |
NT |
Sch I |
R |
|
Black Eagle |
Ictinaetus malaiensis (Temminck, 1822) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Crested Goshawk |
Lophospiza trivirgata (Temminck, 1824) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Shikra |
Tachyspiza badia (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Black Kite |
Milvus migrans (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brahminy Kite |
Haliastur indus (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
White-bellied Sea-Eagle |
Icthyophaga leucogaster (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Grey-headed Fish-Eagle |
Icthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield, 1821) |
NT |
Sch I |
R |
|
White-eyed Buzzard |
Butastur teesa (Franklin, 1831) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Strigiformes (2) |
||||
|
Tytonidae (1) |
||||
|
Eastern Barn-Owl |
Tyto javanica (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Strigidae (5) |
||||
|
Indian Scops-Owl |
Otus bakkamoena (Pennant, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brown Fish-Owl |
Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Jungle Owlet |
Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell, 1833) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Spotted Owlet |
Athene brama (Temminck, 1821) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brown Boobook |
Ninox scutulata (Raffles, 1822) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Trogoniformes (1) |
||||
|
Trogonidae (1) |
||||
|
Malabar Trogon |
Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Bucerotiformes (2) |
||||
|
Upupidae (1) |
||||
|
Eurasian Hoopoe |
Upupa epops (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Bucerotidae (3) |
||||
|
Great Hornbill |
Buceros bicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) |
VU |
Sch I |
R |
|
Malabar Grey Hornbill |
Ocyceros griseus (Latham, 1790) |
VU |
Sch I |
R |
|
Malabar Pied-Hornbill |
Anthracoceros coronatus (Boddaert, 1783) |
NT |
Sch I |
R |
|
Coraciiformes (3) |
||||
|
Meropidae (3) |
||||
|
Asian Green Bee-eater |
Merops orientalis (Latham, 1801) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Blue-tailed Bee-eater |
Merops philippinus (Linnaeus, 1767) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Chestnut-headed Bee-eater |
Merops leschenaulti (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Alcedinidae (3) |
||||
|
Common Kingfisher |
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Stork-billed Kingfisher |
Pelargopsis capensis (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-throated Kingfisher |
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Coraciidae (1) |
||||
|
Indian Roller |
Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Piciformes (2) |
||||
|
Megalaimidae (4) |
||||
|
Malabar Barbet |
Psilopogon malabaricus (Blyth, 1847) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Coppersmith Barbet |
Psilopogon haemacephalus (Müller, 1776) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brown-headed Barbet |
Psilopogon zeylanicus (Gmelin, 1788) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-cheeked Barbet |
Psilopogon viridis (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Picidae (8) |
||||
|
Speckled Piculet |
Picumnus innominatus (Burton, 1836) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Heart-spotted Woodpecker |
Hemicircus canente (Lesson, 1832) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker |
Yungipicus nanus (Vigors, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Malabar Flameback |
Chrysocolaptes socialis (Koelz, 1939) |
NE |
Sch II |
R |
|
Rufous Woodpecker |
Micropternus brachyurus (Vieillot, 1818) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black-rumped Flameback |
Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Lesser Yellownape |
Picus chlorolophus (Vieillot, 1818) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-bellied Woodpecker |
Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield, 1821) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Falconiformes (1) |
||||
|
Falconidae (2) |
||||
|
Common Kestrel |
Falco tinnunculus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Peregrine Falcon |
Falco peregrinus (Tunstall, 1771) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Psittaciformes (1) |
||||
|
Psittaculidae (5) |
||||
|
Alexandrine Parakeet |
Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus, 1766) |
NT |
Sch II |
R |
|
Rose-ringed Parakeet |
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Plum-headed Parakeet |
Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Malabar Parakeet |
Psittacula columboides (Vigors, 1830) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Vernal Hanging-Parrot |
Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman, 1787) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Passeriformes (35) |
||||
|
Pittidae (1) |
||||
|
Indian Pitta |
Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
LM |
|
Campephagidae (3) |
||||
|
Small Minivet |
Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Orange Minivet |
Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster, 1781) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black-headed Cuckooshrike |
Lalage melanoptera (Rüppell, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Oriolidae (2) |
||||
|
Indian Golden Oriole |
Oriolus kundoo (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black-hooded Oriole |
Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Artamidae (1) |
||||
|
Ashy Woodswallow |
Artamus fuscus (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Vangidae (2) |
||||
|
Malabar Woodshrike |
Tephrodornis sylvicola (Jerdon, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike |
Hemipus picatus (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Aegithinidae (1) |
||||
|
Common Iora |
Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Dicruridae (6) |
||||
|
Black Drongo |
Dicrurus macrocercus (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Ashy Drongo |
Dicrurus leucophaeus (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-bellied Drongo |
Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Bronzed Drongo |
Dicrurus aeneus (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Hair-crested Drongo |
Dicrurus hottentottus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo |
Dicrurus paradiseus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Monarchidae (2) |
||||
|
Black-naped Monarch |
Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert, 1783) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Paradise-Flycatcher |
Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Laniidae (3) |
||||
|
Brown Shrike |
Lanius cristatus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Bay-backed Shrike |
Lanius vittatus (Valenciennes,
1826) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Long-tailed Shrike |
Lanius schach (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Corvidae (3) |
||||
|
Rufous Treepie |
Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
House Crow |
Corvus splendens (Vieillot, 1817) |
LC |
Not sch |
R |
|
Large-billed Crow |
Corvus macrorhynchos (Wagler, 1827) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Stenostiridae (1) |
||||
|
Grey-headed Canary-Flycatcher |
Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson, 1820) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Paridae (1) |
||||
|
Cinereous Tit |
Parus cinereus (Vieillot, 1818) |
NE |
Sch II |
R |
|
Alaudidae (1) |
||||
|
Malabar Lark |
Galerida malabarica (Scopoli, 1786) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Cisticolidae (3) |
||||
|
Common Tailorbird |
Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Grey-breasted Prinia |
Prinia hodgsonii (Blyth, 1844) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Ashy Prinia |
Prinia socialis (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Acrocephalidae (1) |
||||
|
Blyth's Reed Warbler |
Acrocephalus dumetorum (Blyth, 1849) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Hirundinidae (5) |
||||
|
Dusky Crag-Martin |
Ptyonoprogne concolor (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Barn Swallow |
Hirundo rustica (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Wire-tailed Swallow |
Hirundo smithii (Leach, 1818) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Eastern Red-rumped Swallow |
Cecropis daurica (Laxmann, 1769) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Streak-throated Swallow |
Petrochelidon fluvicola (Blyth, 1855) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Pycnonotidae (7) |
||||
|
Yellow-browed Bulbul |
Acritillas indica (Jerdon, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Square-tailed Bulbul |
Hypsipetes ganeesa (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Grey-headed Bulbul |
Microtarsus priocephalus (Jerdon, 1839) |
NT |
Sch II |
R |
|
Flame-throated Bulbul |
Rubigula gularis (Gould, 1836) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-browed Bulbul |
Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson, 1841) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Red-whiskered Bulbul |
Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Red-vented Bulbul |
Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Phylloscopidae (5) |
||||
|
Tickell's Leaf Warbler |
Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell, 1833) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Green Warbler |
Phylloscopus nitidus (Blyth, 1843) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Greenish Warbler |
Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall, 1837) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Large-billed Leaf Warbler |
Phylloscopus magnirostris (Blyth, 1843) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Western Crowned Warbler |
Phylloscopus occipitalis (Blyth, 1845) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Sylviidae (1) |
||||
|
Lesser Whitethroat |
Curruca curruca (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Paradoxornithidae (1) |
||||
|
Yellow-eyed Babbler |
Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Zosteropidae (1) |
||||
|
Indian White-eye |
Zosterops palpebrosus (Temminck, 1824) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Timaliidae (2) |
||||
|
Dark-fronted Babbler |
Dumetia atriceps (Jerdon, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Scimitar-Babbler |
Pomatorhinus horsfieldii (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Pellorneidae (1) |
||||
|
Puff-throated Babbler |
Pellorneum ruficeps (Swainson, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Leiothrichidae (3) |
||||
|
Brown-cheeked Fulvetta |
Alcippe poioicephala (Jerdon, 1841) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Jungle Babbler |
Argya striata (Dumont, 1823) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Yellow-billed Babbler |
Argya affinis (Jerdon, 1845) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Sittidae (1) |
||||
|
Velvet-fronted Nuthatch |
Sitta frontalis (Swainson, 1820) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Sturnidae (7) |
||||
|
Southern Hill Myna |
Gracula indica (Cuvier, 1829) |
LC |
Sch I |
R |
|
Rosy Starling |
Pastor roseus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Indian Pied Starling |
Gracupica contra (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Brahminy Starling |
Sturnia pagodarum (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Malabar Starling |
Sturnia blythii (Jerdon, 1845) |
NE |
Sch II |
R |
|
Common Myna |
Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Jungle Myna |
Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler, 1827) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Turdidae (2) |
||||
|
Orange-headed Thrush |
Geokichla citrina (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Blackbird |
Turdus simillimus (Jerdon, 1839) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Muscicapidae (12) |
||||
|
Dark-sided Flycatcher |
Muscicapa sibirica (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Asian Brown Flycatcher |
Muscicapa dauurica (Pallas, 1811) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Indian Robin |
Copsychus fulicatus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Oriental Magpie-Robin |
Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-rumped Shama |
Copsychus malabaricus (Scopoli, 1786) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Tickell's Blue Flycatcher |
Cyornis tickelliae (Blyth, 1843) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Indian Blue Robin |
Larvivora brunnea (Hodgson, 1837) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Malabar Whistling-Thrush |
Myophonus horsfieldii (Vigors, 1831) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Taiga Flycatcher |
Ficedula albicilla (Pallas, 1811) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Red-breasted Flycatcher |
Ficedula parva (Bechstein, 1792) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Blue-capped Rock-Thrush |
Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors, 1831) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Blue Rock-Thrush |
Monticola solitarius (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Dicaeidae (3) |
||||
|
Thick-billed Flowerpecker |
Pachyglossa agilis (Tickell, 1833) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Pale-billed Flowerpecker |
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Nilgiri Flowerpecker |
Dicaeum concolor (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Nectariniidae (5) |
||||
|
Purple-rumped Sunbird |
Leptocoma zeylonica (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Crimson-backed Sunbird |
Leptocoma minima (Sykes, 1832) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Purple Sunbird |
Cinnyris asiaticus (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Loten's Sunbird |
Cinnyris lotenius (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Little Spiderhunter |
Arachnothera longirostra (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Irenidae (1) |
||||
|
Asian Fairy-bluebird |
Irena puella (Latham, 1790) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Chloropseidae (2) |
||||
|
Jerdon's Leafbird |
Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth, 1844) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Golden-fronted Leafbird |
Chloropsis aurifrons (Temminck, 1829) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Estrildidae (3) |
||||
|
Scaly-breasted Munia |
Lonchura punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Black-throated Munia |
Lonchura kelaarti (Jerdon, 1863) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-rumped Munia |
Lonchura striata (Linnaeus, 1766) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Passeridae (2) |
||||
|
House Sparrow |
Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Yellow-throated Sparrow |
Gymnoris xanthocollis (Burton, 1838) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Motacillidae (7) |
||||
|
Forest Wagtail |
Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch I |
WM |
|
Grey Wagtail |
Motacilla cinerea (Tunstall, 1771) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
White-browed Wagtail |
Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmelin, 1789) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
White Wagtail |
Motacilla alba (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
|
Paddyfield Pipit |
Anthus rufulus (Vieillot, 1818) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Long-billed Pipit |
Anthus similis (Jerdon, 1840) |
LC |
Sch II |
R |
|
Tawny Pipit |
Anthus campestris (Linnaeus, 1758) |
LC |
Sch II |
WM |
IUCN—International Union for
Conservation of Nature | LC—Least Concern | VU—Vulnerable | EN—Endangered |
CR—Critically Endangered | NE—Not Evaluated | WPA—Indian Wildlife Protection
(Amendment) Act, 2022 | Sch‑I—Schedule List I species | Sch‑II—Schedule List II species | MS—Migratory status | R—Resident |
SM—Summer migrant | WM—Winter migrant | LM—Local migrant.
Table 3. Birds species endemic to
Western Ghats recorded in the study area.
|
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
|
1 |
Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon |
Columba elphinstonii |
|
2 |
Grey-fronted Green-Pigeon |
Treron affinis |
|
3 |
Malabar Imperial-Pigeon |
Ducula cuprea |
|
4 |
Malabar Grey Hornbill |
Ocyceros griseus |
|
5 |
Malabar Barbet |
Psilopogon malabaricus |
|
6 |
Malabar Flameback |
Chrysocolaptes socialis |
|
7 |
Malabar Parakeet |
Psittacula columboides |
|
8 |
Malabar Woodshrike |
Tephrodornis sylvicola |
|
9 |
Grey-headed Bulbul |
Microtarsus priocephalus |
|
10 |
Flame-throated Bulbul |
Rubigula gularis |
|
11 |
Malabar Starling |
Sturnia blythii |
|
12 |
Nilgiri Flowerpecker |
Dicaeum concolor |
|
13 |
Crimson-backed Sunbird |
Leptocoma minima |
Table 4. Species richness by
forest types in the study area.
|
Forest type |
Shannon-Weiner diversity index
(H’) |
Pielou’s evenness index (J’) |
Species richness |
Total abundance of species |
Most abundant species |
Ratio of the most abundant
species/Total abundance |
|
Mixed forest |
3.824 |
0.663 |
69 |
253 |
grtd (17) |
0.067 |
|
Moist deciduous |
4.102 |
0.581 |
102 |
713 |
pusu (44) |
0.062 |
|
Plantation |
2.78 |
0.805 |
20 |
37 |
shmy (5) |
0.135 |
|
Semi evergreen |
4.152 |
0.557 |
113 |
970 |
wcba (54) |
0.056 |
|
Tropical evergreen |
3.975 |
0.605 |
87 |
701 |
wcba (48) |
0.068 |
grtd—Greater Racket-tailed Drongo
| pusu—Purple Sunbird | shmy—Souther Hill Myna | wcba—White-cheeked Barbet.
Table 5. Status of species of
conservation significance (SCS) in the study area.
|
SCS |
Categories |
Frequency |
|
IUCN Red List categories |
Least Concern |
189 |
|
Near Threatened |
10 |
|
|
Vulnerable |
4 |
|
|
Not Evaluated |
3 |
|
|
National & international
legal protections |
WPA-Schedule I |
29 |
|
State of India’s Birds 2023 |
High Priority |
9 |
|
Moderate Priority |
55 |
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