Journal of Threatened
Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2026 | 18(8): 29470–29482
ISSN 0974-7907 (Online) | ISSN 0974-7893 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10009.18.8.29470-29482
#10009 | Received 19 June 2025 | Final received 22 July 2026| Finally
accepted 04 August 2026
Microhabitat associations and
seasonal dynamics of amphibians in the lateritic rocky outcrops along the
western coast of Goa, India
Dipak Yashawant Bowalkar 1 & Nitin Savlo Sawant 2
1 Department of Zoology, DPM’s
Shree Mallikarjun and Shri Chetan Manju Desai College, Delem,
Canacona, Goa 403702, India.
1,2 School of Biological Sciences and
Biotechnology, Zoology, Goa University, Taleigao
Plateau, Taleigao, Goa 403206, India.
1 dipakbowalkar@gmail.com, 2 nitin.sawant@unigoa.ac.in
(corresponding author)
Editor: Anonymity requested. Date of publication: 26 August 2026 (online &
print)
Citation: Bowalkar, D.Y. & N.S. Sawant (2026). Microhabitat
associations and seasonal dynamics of amphibians in the lateritic rocky
outcrops along the western coast of Goa, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 18(8): 29470–29482. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.10009.18.8.29470-29482
Copyright: © Bowalkar & Sawant 2026. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use,
reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by providing
adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.
Funding: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India, and the Goa State Research Foundation (GSRF), Government of Goa.
Competing interests: We declare that we have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence this work.
Author details: Dipak Y. Bowalkar is working as assistant professor, Department of Zoology, DPM’s Shree Mallikarjun and Shri Chetan Manju Desai College, Delem, Canacona Goa. He is also working as PhD Scholar at Department of Zoology; School of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Taleigao, Goa 403 206, India. Dr. Nitin S. Sawant is affiliated with the School of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Zoology, Goa University, with research interests in ecology, climate change, biodiversity, Wildlife and conservation biology. He is currently involved in major research projects funded by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India, and the Goa State Research Foundation (GSRF), Government of Goa. He has published around 23 research papers in ecology, biodiversity, and wildlife conservation and is actively engaged in research and conservation initiatives in collaboration with the Goa State Biodiversity Board, Goa Forest Department, MoEF&CC, GSRF, and the University of Porto–CIBIO, Portugal.
Author contributions: DYB—field data collection, data analysis, manuscript preparation and writing. NSS—conceptualization of the research, research methodology and study design, manuscript preparation, review, proofreading and supervision.
Acknowledgements: The authors sincerely acknowledge the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Government of India and Goa State Research Foundation
(GSRF), Government of Goa, for providing financial assistance and institutional support for this research. We sincerely thank Dr. Purnanand Chari, President,
Goa Konkani Akademi, Goa Sanchar Bhavan, BSNL Building, Patto, Panaji, Goa, and Head, Department of Konkani, DPM’s SHREE MALLIKARJUN & Shri Chetan Manju Desai College, Delem, Canacona, Goa, for his valuable assistance with the Konkani translation.
Abstract: A total of 12 lateritic rocky
outcrops in Goa were studied throughout the wet season (May to November) to
understand amphibian occurrence and their microhabitat associations.
Microhabitat association and seasonal trend were analysed
using indicator species value (IndVal) and Hill
number analysis. The findings show microhabitats such as ephemeral vegetation,
ephemeral pool, and peripheral ecotone vegetation are critical components of
outcrops and harbour high IndVal
Scores, although seasonal changes significantly influence species distribution
and abundance. The findings conclude strong habitat and seasonal association of
anurans. This research contributes to
conservation strategies for this unique ecosystem of Goa.
Keywords: Anuran, ecotone vegetation,
ephemeral pool, ephemeral vegetation, habitat heterogeneity, hill numbers,
hydroperiod, indicator species value, plateau ecosystem, seasonal breeding.
Introduction
Lateritic rocky outcrops are
highly weathered, iron-rich geological landscapes occurring as open, exposed ferricretes with a thickness of 6–30 m capped over basaltic
bedrocks (Widdowson & Cox 1996). The ecological studies on amphibians
inhabiting low-altitude coastal lateritic outcrops remain limited, particularly
niche specificity within the naturally occurring microhabitats available on
these landscapes (Thorpe et al. 2018; Mudke et al.
2020; Jithin & Naniwadekar
2025; Jithin et al. 2025).
While several amphibian studies
in the Western Ghats have been primarily focused on forested landscapes and
broad-scale environmental determinants of diversity (Gawas
et al. in press; Biju et al. 2008), the present study is situated within
low-altitude lateritic rocky outcrops, which represent distinct
geomorphological systems along coastal and midland regions of Goa (Widdowson
2009). These outcrops are characterised by
heterogeneous microhabitats and function as terrestrial habitat islands with
unique hydrological and vegetation dynamics (Thorpe & Watve
2015), thereby necessitating a fine-scale, microhabitat-based ecological
approach.
Methods
Study Area
The lateritic rocky outcrops are
highly disintegrated patches forming tabletop plateau landscapes representing a
mosaic habitat along the west coast of Goa. For the present study, all coastal
outcrop complexes in Goa were pre-surveyed and selected 12 unique sites (Table
1; Image 1) belonging to four plateaux complexes and
having the least anthropogenic disturbance based on absence of mining, major
infrastructure, intensive agriculture and visible recent land-use conversion,
verified through field reconnaissance and regional land use maps (Widdowson
2009).
Sampling
The microhabitats on outcrops for
the present study were classified based on the availability of following
factors: (1) Water (aquatic habitat); (2) Vegetation; (3) Exposed outcrop; (4)
Slope, and (5) Soil layer (Lekhak & Yadav 2012; Watve 2013; Mudke et al. 2020).
The microhabitats documented from Goan lateritic
outcrops closely resemble those described from Maharashtra and Karnataka (Datar & Watve 2018).
Accordingly, a total of eight microhabitats (Image 2) were selected based on
classification and ecological description provided in earlier studies from the
outcrops of Maharashtra and Karnataka (Lekhak &
Yadav 2012; Watve 2013; Rahangdale
& Rahangdale 2014; Thorpe & Watve 2015; Sreejith et al. 2016; Datar
& Watve 2018; Thorpe et al. 2018; Mudke et al. 2020; Jithin et al.
2025). Microhabitats were defined based on water availability, vegetation type,
soil depth, and slope angle (Table 2). Some authors also recognise
naturally occurring other microhabitats such as loose rocks and rock crevices
which were merged as a part of exposed rocks plains and slopes for the present
study (Lekhak & Yadav 2012; Thorpe et al. 2018; Jithin et al. 2023). The high-elevation outcrops associated
microhabitats such as steep clips and lateritic cave were absent or not
uniformly available in the present study sites (Datar
& Watve 2018), hence not included in the study.
The human-influenced or altered habitats such as paddy fields, orchards, acacia
plantation, cashew plantation and sacred groves were not considered in the
present the study to minimise the anthropogenic
effect (Rahangdale & Rahangdale
2014; Mudke et al. 2020; Jithin
et al. 2025).
Weather data collected from
nasa.gov between 1981–2023 for all study sites reveals irregular showers in the
months of May and November (Image 4). Hence, the study was conducted between
the two monsoon cycles of seven months (May–November) of the years 2023 and
2024. At each of the study sites, line transects of 100-m long and 6-m wide
were plotted that would cover all microhabitats and minimal anthropogenic
stress. A time-constrained visual count method was employed to document the
number of sightings of amphibians within the transect. The sampling was done
between 1900 h and 2200 h when amphibian activity is highest (Crump & Scott
Jr. 1994; Rodda et al. 2005). The same transect was reused for the next year.
The amphibian activity and their abundance in each of the microhabitats were
recorded separately. Amphibian species encountered during the study were
photographed using an Olympus TG-6 camera and calls recorded using a Sony
ICD-PX470 digital voice recorder in the field, while cryptic species were
examined by capturing using latex-free gloves. Prior approval from the
Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC), Goa University, was obtained
before the study (Approval No. GUZ/IAEC/23-24/17), and all efforts were made to
minimise disturbance to animals and their habitats as
per guidelines given the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR) code of
practice. Species were identified using available standard identification keys
(Gururaja 2012; Dinesh et al. 2015, 2024; Modak et al. 2015; Padhye et al.
2015, 2017; Gururaja & Hebbar
2016; Garg & Biju 2016, 2017, 2021; Garg et al. 2018; Sanchez et al. 2018; Dufresnes et al. 2022; Yadav et al. 2024). Taxonomic
nomenclature is followed as per the Amphibian Species of the World 6.2 database
(Frost 2024).
Analysis
All statistical analyses were
performed using R (version 4.4.1; R Core Team 2024) implemented in RStudio. The indicator of species analysis (IndVal) was carried out to understand the association of
each species with microhabitats on the outcrop by cumulating all the monthly
observations of each microhabitat across all study sites. To minimise the effect of chance, a randomised
analysis with N = 999 was performed, and the associations only with a
significance level less than or equal to 0.05 were considered valid. IndVal with 999 Permutations were performed across all
species for their microhabitat association, reporting five microhabitats with
strong association with amphibian species. The “indicspecies
package” was used to compute Indicator of species analysis, while the “permute
packages” was used for significance testing with permutation. The visualisation of these associations between anuran species
and microhabitats was done by using a Sankey plot with the “networkD3 package”.
Further, alpha diversity were analysed
by performing Hill number analysis for each microhabitat to estimate different
aspects of biodiversity with q values 0, 1, 2 and 3. The q0 value is an
indicator of species richness encountered in each microhabitat. To understand
the relationship between each microhabitat with respect to anuran species,
alpha diversity was analysed with Hill number (q = 0,
1, 2, 3) computation using the “hillR package”. To
understand the pattern of anuran occurrence during the hydration period, all
microhabitat observations were accumulated by month and visualised
using a heat map and violin plot using “ggplot2” and “geom_tile”
package.
Results
A total of 15,574 amphibian
sightings belonging to seven families, 12 genera, and 14 species (Image 3) were
reported from 12 low-altitude lateritic outcrops from the state of Goa with a
sampling effort conducted during two consecutive years (May–November) of 2023
and 2024. It was observed that 41% of amphibian species were documented from
the state on the lateritic rocky outcrops. One Vulnerable species and three
Schedule II species under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 were
reported from the present study (Table 3). More than 70% of the species
documented in the present study are listed by IUCN for association with forest,
inland wetland, artificial terrestrial habitats, artificial aquatic habitats
and marshlands (Table 3).
The encounter rate of amphibians
across the seven-months study period increased from mid-May and peaked during
August, followed by a sharp decrease towards November (Image 5). This seasonal
pattern reflects variation in detectability and breeding activity associated
with the southwestern monsoon. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis exhibited the highest encounter rate
among all species during August, coinciding with peak monsoonal breeding
activity (Image 8).
Ephemeral vegetation and
peripheral ecotone vegetation showed the highest number of significant
indicator species (four
each), followed by exposed rocky plains, ephemeral pool, and shrubland patches,
with three, two and one, respectively (Image 6). The microhabitats exposed
rocky slope, surface runoff channel and soil-filled depression showed no
significant correlation with any anuran species. Two species, Minervarya gomantaki
and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis,
achieved maximum IndVal values of 44.8% and 43.6%,
respectively, while Phrynoderma cf. konkani
and Uperodon mormoratus
exhibited the lowest IndVal values of 3.6% and 3.3%,
respectively (Table 3).
The Hill number analysis revealed
q = 0 values between 7 and 13 across all microhabitats associated with
lateritic outcrops (Image 7). The sequence of q0 in decreasing order was
observed to be shrubland patches -> ephemeral vegetation -> soil-filled
depression -> peripheral ecotone vegetation -> ephemeral pool -> exposed
rocky plains -> exposed rocky slopes -> runoff channels..
The q1 value is an indicator of effective species diversity and measures the
exponential of Shannon entropy. Here, it was evaluated that q1 was highest in
shrubland patches of 8.4, while lowest in the runoff channel and ephemeral pool
with q1 of 2.4 for both. The Hill numbers q2 and q3 provide strong evidence
regarding dominating species in a microhabitat by minimising
the effect of rare species. Microhabitat types with woody plants and vegetation
like shrubland patches demonstrate the highest q2 and q3 of 6.6 and 5.8
measurements, respectively, while aquatic environments on outcrops, the surface
runoff channels (q2 1.17; q3 1.12) and ephemeral pools (q2 1.16; q3 1.11) had
the lowest measurements.
Discussion
Previous anuran ecological
studies have largely treated outcrop landscapes as a single unit (Jithin et al. 2025), while the present study examines here
the microhabitat level studies on lateritic rocky outcrops in Goa. The study of
these suggests that a few amphibian species are strongly associated with
specific microhabitats (Thorpe et al. 2018; Mudke et
al. 2020). The two aquatic anuran species Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis and Phrynoderma cf. konkani were observed to have a strong association with
ephemeral pools (Mudke et al. 2020). Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
was previously been reported to shift from permanent water sources to rain fed
shallow waterholes such as roadside ditches, paddy field and vernal water for
breeding, which signifies their strong association with Ephemeral pools on the
outcrop (Chowdhury et al. 2021). Phrynoderma cf. konkani
also show similar habitat preference with more restriction to low lying
wetlands and plateaus in coastal regions while this species was observed only
from Socorro plateau in present study (Yadav et al. 2024). The small streams
formed due to surface runoff cut through the outcrops and make channel towards
periphery of outcrop in direction of slope and dries up faster while the
ephemeral pools retain water for longer period (Porembski
et al. 2016; Kulkarni et al. 2022). The observation in the field shows anurans
such as Minervarya cepfi
and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
and Hoplobatrachus tigerinus
optionally use this microhabitat to reduce competition. Due to lack of
predators such as fishes, the shallow ephemeral pool is most preferred habitat
for anurans tadpoles (Jithin & Naniwadekar 2025). The aquatic vegetation in this ephemeral
pool gradually covers entire pools which provides shelter for anuran tadpoles
(Kulkarni et al. 2022).
The ephemeral vegetation covers
the short-length endemic herbaceous plants including grasses (Sreejith et al.
2016). It was found that this habitat was dominatingly used by Minervarya gomantaki, Minervarya syhadrensis and
Microhyla ornata. The
dense mesh of herbaceous plants in ephemeral vegetation also provide protection
from predators for amphibians (Burrow & Maerz
2022). In the present study, it was observed that males of these species croak
while hiding in the carpet of ephemeral vegetation. Polypedates
maculatus, even though is of arboreal nature, was reported to breed and lay
foam nests in ephemeral vegetation near ephemeral pools (Mudke
et al. 2020). The rocky exposed laterites are periodically separated by
shrubland patches composed of small bushes along with few woody plants are
important microhabitat which act as a refuge to avoid the harsh temperature of
day time for most of the anurans (Lekhak & Yadav
2012; Burrow & Maerz 2022). Sphaerotheca
dobsoni and Duttaphrynus
melanostictus, the ground-dwelling terrestrial
anurans, were found foraging mostly on ground foliage in shrubland patches on
the outcrops (Mudke et al. 2020).
The peripheral ecotone vegetation
also serves as an important refuge for multiple anurans, while Pseudophilautus amboli and
Duttaphrynus melanostictus
was found to be the most dominant anuran species in this microhabitat. Indirana due to their primitive semi-terrestrial
breeding strategy is strongly associated with forest and forest edges (Gaitonde & Giri 2014; Komanduri et al. 2023). Similar findings were reported in
this study for Indirana salelkari
which was strictly found in the peripheral ecotone vegetation. Studies show
that Uperodon mormoratus
is an early monsoon aquatic breeder that prefers forest habitat over the outcrops
(Katwate & Apte 2019),
which is consistent with our study, as this species was only reported from
peripheral ecotone vegetation.
The exposed rocky plains during
heavy precipitation temporarily submerge with surface flooding while merging
with ephemeral pools, water channels and ephemeral vegetation (Thorpe et al.
2018). This microhabitat is strongly associated with Minervarya
cepfi where males show mass accumulation during
the peak monsoon at night while they take refugia under loose rocks and shrubland
patches during daytime (Garg & Biju 2017).
The exposed slope showed the least association with any anurans during
the present study likely due to rapid drainage, reduced water retention and
higher exposure to thermal stress compared to other microhabitats. However, the
small crevices on the exposed rocky plains and slopes were used by males of Hoplobatrachus tigerinus
and Sphaerotheca dobsonii
to reduce predation risk during the peak activity period (Mudke et al. 2020; Komanduri et
al. 2023).
Effect of Hydroperiod
Based on the hydroperiod on
lateritic outcrops, two distinct seasonal patterns can be identified: the dry
season from December to mid-May and the wet season from May to November (Jithin et al. 2025). Amphibians show periodic migration
between their breeding habitat and refuge habitat (Snodgrass et al. 2000). Most
amphibians show an explosive breeding strategy during the wet season on plateau
outcrops, while during the dry season they either undergo aestivation or their
population shifts to lowlands where water is available to return with the onset
of monsoon (Burrow & Maerz 2022). Different
species have evolved in response to changing hydroperiod often categorised as early explosive breeders, prolonged breeders
and late seasonal breeders. Explosive breeders mate
for a short duration when conditions are favourable,
whereas prolonged breeders reproduce over an extended season (Soni et al. 2025). Though most anurans synchronise
themselves with the precipitation trend across the wet period, from the present
study we observed that anurans use these three selective strategies to breed
while occupying different microhabitats on the outcrop. Euphlyctis
cyanophlyctis, Minervarya
cepfi, Minervarya
gomantaki, Polypedates
maculatus, Pseudophilautus amboli, and Microhyla
ornata shows prolonged breeding activity with
peak population in July to August when precipitation is high. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus
and Sphaerotheca dobsoni
appear on plateaus during pre-monsoon (May–July) showers and show early
explosive breeding. Indirana salelkari is found to be active during late-monsoon
(September–November) preferring late seasonal breeding strategy. This
differential use of time by anurans acts as an important factor for temporal
niche differentiation on the outcrops to maximise
best utilisation of resources (Borzée
et al. 2016).
Anthropogenic stress on outcrops
The present study scope is only
restricted to naturally occurring microhabitats while the majority of these
microhabitats are constantly altered due to anthropogenic activities. Mining,
laterite stone quarrying and infrastructure development on outcrops at both
domestic and commercial scale remains the biggest threat to loss of
microhabitats (Thorpe & Watve 2015; Porembski et al. 2016; Jithin et
al. 2025). The ephemeral pools on outcrops are altered with cemented water tank
for cattle drinking and domestic use. Ephemeral vegetation like Senecio belgaumensis,
Utricularia spp. and Eriocaulon
spp. are mass exploited for ornamental and religious purposes (Ghate et al. 2023). The high demand for residential land
with boom of tourism along with unplanned urbanisation
in the state of Goa has forced to convert these lateritic rocky outcrops into urbanisation hubs (Sutheeshna
2021). Few lateritic outcrops of Goa due to their complex land ownership status
are still retained with minimal disturbance while peripheral slopes of these
outcrops are intensely exploited for cashew plantation and commercial
residential projects (Nigam et al. 2024).
Conservation Status of Anurans
and Outcrops
Based on the IUCN Red Data list,
nine of the anuran species reported form the present study have declining
population trend (Table 3). According to the IUCN habitat type, the lateritic
outcrops are designated as rocky areas. While only Minervarya
cepfi documented from the present study has been
assigned to this habitat type. Other studies, along with our observation
reports Minervarya cepfi
having a strong association with exposed rocky plain microhabitats on the
outcrops (Thorpe et al. 2018; Mudke et al. 2020).
Amphibians are declining
worldwide, while loss of their habitat remains one of the prime contributing
factors for this loss (Alford & Richards 1999; Catenazzi
2015; Luedtke et al. 2023). These habitats are declining due to their rapid
land use, land cover change for human needs (Alford & Richards 1999; Catenazzi 2015; Nakazawa 2015). Outcrops can parallelly act
as an alternate breeding ground for these anurans. According to the Town and
Planning Survey of Goa, the status of these lateritic outcrops is of mixed
nomenclature, classified mostly as wasteland, barren land, pasture land, while
outcrops which show partial succession were termed as shrubland, grasslands,
orchards, grazing grounds, and open natural cover. There is an urgent need for
revision of this classification for the conservation of these outcrops.
Table 1. Details of the
study site used for the present study.
Land use type is based on the
Regional Plan for Goa 2021
(RDP-2021) prepared by the Goa Town & Country
Planning Department.
|
Study Site |
Latitude |
Longitude |
Area (km2) |
Land Use type |
|
A: Canacona
Plateaux |
|
|
|
|
|
A1: Cutimol |
14.9830° N |
74.0663° E |
12.43 |
Grazing Ground, Orchard,
Natural Cover |
|
A2: Bhagwati Pattar |
14.9592° N |
74.0716° E |
12.70 |
Orchard, Protected / reserve
forest, Natural Cover |
|
A3: Modditolop |
14.9263° N |
74.0503° E |
14.32 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement |
|
B: Cape-de-Rama Plateaux |
|
|
|
|
|
B1: Gaval |
15.0973° N |
73.9406° E |
7.46 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement, Paddy Fields |
|
B2: Quitol |
15.1428° N |
73.9790° E |
11.68 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement, Paddy Fields |
|
B3: Betul |
15.1607° N |
73.9986° E |
13.31 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement, Paddy Fields |
|
C : Phonda Plateaux |
|
|
|
|
|
C1: Durbhat |
15.3924° N |
73.9739° E |
8.67 |
Natural Cover, Orchard |
|
C2: Priol |
15.4255° N |
74.0044° E |
5.66 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement |
|
C3: Keri |
15.436889° N |
74.023028° E |
9.62 |
Orchard, Natural Cover, |
|
D: Porvorium
Plateaux |
|
|
|
|
|
D1: Pirnne |
15.540250° N |
73.802861° E |
3.66 |
Orchard, Natural Cover,
Settlement |
|
D2: Soccorro |
15.573139° N |
73.840361° E |
3.87 |
Orchard, Natural Cover, Quarry,
Settlement |
|
D3: Vainginim |
15.571000° N |
73.914889° E |
2.13 |
Orchard, Natural Cover |
Table 2. Microhabitats used for the present study
with their characterization.
|
|
Microhabitat type |
Availability of water |
Type of vegetation |
Thickness of soil |
Angle of slope |
|
1 |
Exposed rocky flats |
Low |
No vegetation, lichens, mosses,
blue-green algae. grass. |
Absent to thin |
Gentle, plain |
|
2 |
Exposed rocky slope |
Low |
No vegetation, lichens, mosses,
blue-green algae. grass. |
Absent to thin |
Acute, steep slope |
|
3 |
Seasonal surface channels |
High, Lotic water |
Aquatic plants, blue-green
algae. |
Thin |
Depression, drainage. |
|
4 |
Ephemeral pools |
High, Lentic water |
Herbaceous plants, aquatic
plants, blue-green algae. |
Thin |
Depression, pool. |
|
5 |
Ephemeral vegetation |
Moderate |
Herbaceous ephemeral plants,
grasses |
Thin to moderate |
Gentle |
|
6 |
Shrubland patches |
Moderate |
Herbaceous plants, bushes,
woody plants |
Moderate to thick |
Gentle, plain |
|
7 |
Peripheral ecotone vegetation |
Moderate |
Herbaceous plants, bushes,
woody plants |
Moderate to thick |
Acute, steep slope |
|
8 |
Soil-filled depression |
Moderate |
Herbaceous plants, bushes |
Moderate to thick |
Gentle, plain |
Table 3. Species-wise analysis of
microhabitat association and IUCN inventories. IndVal:
Indicator value of species with 999 permutations (p = 0.01) | LC—Least Concern
| VU—Vulnerable | NE—Not Evaluated | *—endemic to the Western Ghats |
#—Schedule-II species under WPA, 1972.
|
Species |
IndVal% |
Associated microhabitat |
IUCN Red List
status |
IUCN population
trend |
IUCN Habitat type |
||||||||
|
Forest |
Savanna |
Shrubland |
Grassland |
Rocky areas |
Wetlands |
Artificial/terrestrial |
Artificial/ aquatic |
Marine |
|||||
|
Family: Bufonidae |
|||||||||||||
|
Duttaphrynus melanostictus |
7.17 |
Peripheral vegetation |
LC |
↑se |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Family: Dicroglossidae |
|||||||||||||
|
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis*# |
43.6 |
Ephemeral pools |
LC |
Stable |
+ |
|
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus# |
16.4 |
Exposed rock |
LC |
Stable |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Minervarya cepfi* |
38.8 |
Exposed rock |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
|
|
Minervarya gomantaki* |
44.8 |
Ephemeral vegetation |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Minervarya syhadrensis |
14.3 |
Ephemeral vegetation |
LC |
↓se |
|
+ |
+ |
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Phrynoderma cf. konkani* |
3.6 |
Ephemeral pools |
NE |
- |
|
|
|
|
|
- |
|
- |
- |
|
Sphaerotheca dobsoni* |
10.9 |
Exposed rock |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
+ |
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Family: Microhylidae |
|||||||||||||
|
Microhyla ornata |
30.3 |
Ephemeral vegetation |
LC |
Stable |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Uperodon mormoratus* |
3.39 |
Peripheral vegetation |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Family: Ranidae |
|||||||||||||
|
Hydrophylax bahuvistara |
7.86 |
Shrubs and bushes |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Family: Ranixalidae |
|||||||||||||
|
Indirana salelkari* |
11 |
Peripheral vegetation |
VU |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
|
|
+ |
+ |
|
|
|
Family: Rhacophoridae |
|||||||||||||
|
Polypedates maculatus |
13.9 |
Ephemeral vegetation |
LC |
Unknown |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
|
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Pseudophilautus amboli* |
37.6 |
Peripheral vegetation |
LC |
↓se |
+ |
|
|
|
|
|
+ |
|
|
For
images - -
click here for full PDF
References
Alford, R.A.
& S.J. Richards (1999). Global amphibian declines: a problem in applied
ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30: 133–165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.133
Biju, S.D. et
al. (2008). Diversity and conservation status of the Western Ghats amphibians,
pp. 80–82. In: Stuart, S.N. et al. (eds.). Threatened Amphibians of the World.
Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Borzée, A. et al. (2016). Temporal and spatial differentiation
in microhabitat use: implications for reproductive isolation and ecological
niche specification. Integrative Zoology 11(5): 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/1749-4877.12200
Burrow, A.
& J. Maerz (2022). How plants affect amphibian
populations. Biological Reviews 97(5): 1749–1767. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12861
Catenazzi, A. (2015). State of the world’s
amphibians. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 40(1): 91–119. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021358
Chowdhury,
M.A.W. et al. (2021). Temporary water holes may benefit the breeding of the
common skipper frog Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Anura: Dicroglossidae). Ecologies 2(1): 138–149.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies2010007
Crump, M.L.
& N.J. Scott Jr. (1994). Visual encounter surveys, pp. 84–92. In: Heyer, W.R. et al. (eds.). Measuring and Monitoring
Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington, DC.
Datar, M.N. & A.V. Watve
(2018). Vascular plant assemblage of cliffs in northern Western Ghats, India.
Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(2): 11271–11284. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3611.10.2.11271-11284
Dinesh, K.P.
et al. (2024). Checklist of Fauna of India: Animalia: Chordata: Amphibia.
Version 1.0. Zoological Survey of India. https://doi.org/10.26515/Fauna/1/2023/Chordata:Amphibia
Dinesh, K.P.
et al. (2015). Systematic status of Fejervarya
(Amphibia, Anura, Dicroglossidae)
from South and SE Asia with the description of a new species from the Western
Ghats of Peninsular India. Zootaxa 3999(1): 79–94. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3999.1.5
Dufresnes, C. et al. (2022). Shedding light on taxonomic chaos:
Diversity and distribution of South Asian skipper frogs (Anura,
Dicroglossidae, Euphlyctis).
Systematics and Biodiversity 20(1): 2102686. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772000.2022.2102686
Frost, D.R.
(2024). Amphibian Species of the World: An Online Reference. Version 6.2
(accessed on 20.v.2025). American Museum
of Natural History, New York, USA. Electronic database. https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/index.php.
https://doi.org/10.5531/db.vz.0001
Gaitonde, N. & V. Giri
(2014). Primitive breeding in an ancient Indian frog genus Indirana.
Current Science 107(1): 109–112.
Garg, S.
& S.D. Biju (2016). Molecular and morphological study of leaping frogs (Anura, Ranixalidae) with
description of two new species. PLOS ONE 11(11): e0166326. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166326
Garg, S.
& S.D. Biju (2017). Description of four new species of burrowing frogs in
the Fejervarya rufescens
complex (Dicroglossidae) with notes on morphological
affinities of Fejervarya species in the
Western Ghats. Zootaxa 4277(4): 451–490. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4277.4.1
Garg, S.
& S.D. Biju (2021). DNA barcoding and systematic review of minervaryan frogs (Dicroglossidae:
Minervarya) of Peninsular India: resolution of
a taxonomic conundrum with description of a new species. Asian Herpetological
Research 12(4): 345–370. https://doi.org/10.16373/j.cnki.ahr.210023
Garg, S. et
al. (2019). Systematic revision of Microhyla (Microhylidae) frogs of South Asia: a molecular,
morphological, and acoustic assessment. Vertebrate Zoology 69(1): 1–71. https://doi.org/10.26049/VZ69-1-2019-01
Gawas, M. et al. (In press). Community structure and
environmental determinants of amphibians in the Western Ghats watersheds of
eastern Goa, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa.
Ghate, P. et al.
(2023). Matvi: an eco-cultural tradition of
wildflower decoration from Rajapur Tehsil, Ratnagiri
District, Maharashtra, India. Journal of Ecological Society 34(1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.54081/JES.028/03
Gururaja, K.V. (2012). Pictorial guide to
frogs and toads of the Western Ghats. Gubbi Labs LLP, Gubbi, Karnataka, India,
xviii + 154 pp.
Gururaja, K.V. & P. Hebbar (2016). A new species of Euphlyctis
(Amphibia, Anura, Dicroglossidae)
from the west coastal plains of India. Asian Herpetological Research 7(4):
229–241. https://doi.org/10.16373/j.cnki.ahr.160020
IUCN SSC
Amphibian Specialist Group (2023). Pseudophilautus
amboli. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2023: e.T58910A3074893. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T58910A3074893.en. Accessed
on 24.viii.2026.
IUCN SSC
Amphibian Specialist Group (2023). Minervarya
cepfi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2023: e.T121370255A121370272. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T121370255A121370272.en. Accessed
on 24.viii.2026.
Jithin, V. & R. Naniwadekar
(2025). Effects of abiotic and biotic factors on tadpole occurrence and
abundance in seasonal rock pools of rock outcrops, northern Western Ghats.
Aquatic Ecology 59(2): 797–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10452-025-10195-w
Jithin, V. et al. (2023). Between a rock and a hard place:
Comparing rock-dwelling animal prevalence across abandoned paddy, orchards, and
rock outcrops in a biodiversity hotspot. Global Ecology and Conservation 46:
e02582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02582
Jithin, V. et al. (2025). Orchards and paddy differentially
impact rock outcrop amphibians: Insights from community- and species-level responses.
Ecological Applications 35(1): e3058. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.3058
Katwate, U. & D. Apte
(2019). Amphibian diversity in two different landscapes of Konkan Region,
northern Western Ghats, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
116: 9–21. https://doi.org/10.17087/jbnhs/2019/v116/115359
Komanduri, K.P.K. et al. (2023). Abundance
and composition of forest-dwelling anurans in cashew plantations in a tropical
semi-evergreen forest landscape. Biotropica 55(3):
594–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.13210
Kulkarni, A.
et al. (2022). Vanishing waters: water chemistry of temporary rock pools of the
Western Ghats, India. Water Practice and Technology 17(1): 234–245. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2021.107
Lekhak, M.M. & S.R. Yadav (2012). Herbaceous vegetation
of threatened high altitude lateritic plateau ecosystems of Western Ghats,
southwestern Maharashtra, India. Rheedea 22(1):
39–61. https://doi.org/10.22244/rheedea.2012.22.01.12
Luedtke, J.A.
et al. (2023). Ongoing declines for the world’s amphibians in the face of
emerging threats. Nature 622(7982): 308–314. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06578-4
Modak, N. et al. (2015). Indirana
salelkari, a new species of leaping frog (Anura: Ranixalidae) from Western
Ghats of Goa, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(9): 7493–7509. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2175.7493-7509
Mudke, M. et al. (2020). Annotated list of anurans from the
lateritic plateau of western India with notes on malformations. Check List
16(3): 685–698. https://doi.org/10.15560/16.3.685
Nakazawa, T.
(2015). Ontogenetic niche shifts matter in community ecology: a review and
future perspectives. Population Ecology 57(2): 347–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-014-0448-z
Nigam, R. et
al. (2024). Evaluation of efficiency of the index of potential anthropic
geomorphology at meso level: a case study of Goa
State, India. The Geographical Journal 190(1): e12540. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12540
Padhye, A.D. et al. (2015). Hydrophylax
bahuvistara, a new species of fungoid frog
(Amphibia: Ranidae) from peninsular India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 7(11): 7744–7760. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2318.7744-7760
Padhye, A. et al. (2017). Sphaerotheca
pashchima, a new species of burrowing frog (Anura: Dicroglossidae) from
western India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 9(6): 10286–10296.
https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2877.9.6.10286-10296
Porembski, S., et al. (2016). Worldwide
destruction of inselbergs and related rock outcrops threatens a unique
ecosystem. Biodiversity and Conservation 25(13): 2827–2830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1171-1
Rahangdale, S.S. & S.R. Rahangdale (2014). Plant species composition on two rock
outcrops from the northern Western Ghats, Maharashtra, India. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 6(4): 5593–5612. https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3616.5593-612
R Core Team
(2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation
for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/
Rodda, G.H.
et al. (2005). The predictive power of visual searching. Herpetological Review
36(3): 259–264.
Sanchez, E.
et al. (2018). Phylogeny and classification of fejervaryan
frogs (Anura: Dicroglossidae).
Salamandra 54(2): 109–116.
Snodgrass,
J.W. et al. (2000). Relationships among isolated wetland size, hydroperiod, and
amphibian species richness: implications for wetland regulations. Conservation
Biology 14(2): 414–419. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99161.x
Soni, S.P. et al. (2025). Barking up the wrong frog:
global prevalence of misdirected amplexus in anuran amphibians. Biological
Journal of the Linnean Society 145(1): blae062. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blae062
Sreejith,
K.A. et al. (2016). Microhabitat diversity in a lateritic hillock of northern
Kerala, India. Vegetos 29(3): 100. https://doi.org/10.5958/2229-4473.2016.00074.4
Sutheeshna, B.S. (2021). Tourism,
Urbanization and Spatial Reorganization: Some Reflections on Tourism
Development in Goa, India, pp. 219–242. In: Jaglan,
M.S. & Rajeshwari (eds.) Reflections on 21st Century Human
Habitats in India: Felicitation Volume in Honour of
Professor M.H. Qureshi. Springer Nature Singapore Pte
Ltd., Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3100-9_9
Thorpe, C.J.
& A. Watve (2015). Lateritic Plateaus in the
northern Western Ghats, India; a review of bauxite mining restoration
practices. Journal of Ecological Society 28(1): 25–44. https://doi.org/10.54081/JES.024/03
Thorpe, et
al. (2018). Micro-habitat distribution drives patch quality for sub-tropical
rocky plateau amphibians in the northern Western Ghats, India. PLOS ONE 13(3):
e0194810. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194810
Watve, A. (2013). Status review of rocky plateaus in the
northern Western Ghats and Konkan region of Maharashtra, India with
recommendations for conservation and management. Journal of Threatened Taxa
5(5): 3935–3962. https://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3372.3935-62
Widdowson, M.
(2009). Evolution of laterite in Goa, pp. 35–68. In: Mascarenhas,
A. & G. Kalavampara (eds.) Natural Resources of
Goa: A Geological Perspective. Geological Society of Goa, Miramar, Goa, India.
Widdowson, M.
& K.G. Cox (1996). Uplift and erosional history of the Deccan Traps, India:
evidence from laterites and drainage patterns of the Western Ghats and Konkan
Coast. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 137(1–4): 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(95)00211-T
Yadav, O. et al. (2024). A new species of pond frog Phrynoderma
(Anura: Dicroglossidae)
from the coastal plains of Maharashtra, Western India. Journal of Asia-Pacific
Biodiversity 17(4): 601–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2024.03.008