Mapping the conflict of raptor conservation and recreational shooting in the Batumi Bottleneck, Republic of Georgia
Main Article Content
Abstract
Illegal use of natural resources threatens biodiversity and often leads to conservation conflicts between affected parties. Such a conflict is emerging in the Batumi Bottleneck in the Republic of Georgia, where every autumn more than one million migrating birds of prey funnel above a handful of villages, and where thousands of these birds fall victim to illegal shooting. As a first step towards resolving this conflict, utilizing semi-structured interviews, we map the goals and opinions of relevant stakeholders associated with raptor migration in the bottleneck. Our results show that most stakeholders, except some local hunters, are on common ground considering the shooting unacceptable, but articulate different preferences concerning a solution, which hinged on institutional and enforcement issues. The hunters expressed a wide spectrum of responses concerning their involvement and motivation in raptor shooting, the role and importance of hunting in their lives, and preferred mitigation actions. The most urgent issues to be addressed via conservation actions are the wide-scale lack of awareness of the conflict, the potential loss of species, and the risk of conflict escalation.
ÂArticle Details
Authors own the copyright to the articles published in JoTT. This is indicated explicitly in each publication. The authors grant permission to the publisher Wildlife Information Liaison Development (WILD) Society to publish the article in the Journal of Threatened Taxa. The authors recognize WILD as the original publisher, and to sell hard copies of the Journal and article to any buyer. JoTT is registered under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY), which allows authors to retain copyright ownership. Under this license the authors allow anyone to download, cite, use the data, modify, reprint, copy and distribute provided the authors and source of publication are credited through appropriate citations (e.g., Son et al. (2016). Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the southeastern Truong Son Mountains, Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(7): 8953–8969. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2785.8.7.8953-8969). Users of the data do not require specific permission from the authors or the publisher.
References
Agency of Protected Areas of Georgia (APAG) (2017). Kanonebi [Legislation]. URL: http://apa.gov.ge/ge/kanonmdebloba Accessed on 17.11.2017.
Anthony, B.P., P. Scott & A. Antypas (2010). Sitting on the fence? Policies and practices in managing human-wildlife conflict in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Conservation & Society 8(3): 225–240.
Bauer, J. & A. Herr (2004). Hunting and fishing tourism, pp. 57-77. In: Higginbottom, K. (ed.). Wildlife tourism: impacts, management and planning. Common Ground Publishing, Altona Vic.
Bhupathy, S., S.R. Kumar, P. Thirumalainathan, J. Paramanandham & C. Lemba (2013). Wildlife exploitation: a market survey in Nagaland, north-eastern India. Tropical Conservation Science 6: 241–253.
Bildstein, K.L. (2006). Migrating raptors of the world: their ecology & conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Birdlife International (2004). Birds in Europe: Population Estimates, Trends and Conservation Status. (BirdLife Conservation Series No.12). Birdlife International, Cambridge.
BirdLife International (2013). Clanga clanga. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T22696027A40759511. Accessed on 23 August 2016; http://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22696027A40759511.en
BirdLife International (2015a). Circus macrourus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T22695396A85143601. Accessed on 23.08.2016.
BirdLife International (2015b). The Killing. BirdLife International, Cambridge.
BRC (2015). Migration count data. Batumi Raptor Count. http://www.batumiraptorcount.org/research/monitoring/raptor-count-results Accessed on 02 March 2015.
BRC (2016). Monitoring of illegal shooting. Batumi Raptor Count. http://www.batumiraptorcount.org/conservation/monitoring-illegal-shooting Accessed on 06 April 2016.
Burfield, I.J. (2008). The conservation status and trends of raptors and owls in Europe. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 37(6): 401–407.
DTRAAR (2017a). Department of Tourism and Resorts of Adjara Autonomous Republic. http://gobatumi.com/en/discover-Adjara/types-of-tourism/birdwatching/467 Accessed on 16 April 2017.
DTRAAR (2017b). Department of Tourism and Resorts of Adjara Autonomous Republic. http://gobatumi.com/en/what-to-do/festivals-2016/birdwatching/461 Accessed on 16 April 2017.
Dickman, A.J. (2010). Complexities of conflict: the importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human-wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation 13(5): 458–466.
Dickman, A., S. Marchini & M. Manfredo (2013). The human dimension in addressing conflict with large carnivores. Key Topics in Conservation Biology 2: 110–126.
Eliason, S.L. (1999). The illegal taking of wildlife: Toward a theoretical understanding of poaching. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 4(2): 27-39.
ESRI (2015). ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.3. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands.
Fenech, N. (1992). Fatal Flight: the Maltese Obsession with Killing Birds. Quiller Press, London.
Gavin, M.C., J.N. Solomon & S.G. Blank (2010). Measuring and monitoring illegal use of natural resources. Conservation Biology 24(1): 89–100.
Giordano, A. (1991). The migration of birds of prey and storks in the Straits of Messina. Birds of Prey Bulletin 4: 239–249.
Giordano, A., D. Ricciardi, G. Candiano, S. Celesti & A. Irrera (1998). Anti-poaching on the Straits of Messina; results after 15 years of activities, pp. 623–629. In: Chancellor R.D. & B.U. Meyburg (eds.). Holarctic Birds of Prey. World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin.
GNTA (2015). Georgian Tourism in Figures - Structure and Industry data. Georgian National Tourism Administration. http://gnta.ge/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/2015-eng.pdf. Accessed on 17 November 2017.
Hirschfeld, A. & A. Heyd (2005). Mortality of migratory birds caused by hunting in Europe: bag statistics and proposals for the conservation of birds and animal welfare. Berichte zum Vogelschutz 42: 47–74.
Holloway, S. (1996). The Historical Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland 1875–1900. T & AD Poyser, London.
Jansen, J. (2013). Assessment of the Shooting of Migrating Raptors in the Batumi Bottleneck. Master’s thesis, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
Kahler, J.S. & M.L. Gore (2012). Beyond the cooking pot and pocket book: Factors influencing noncompliance with wildlife poaching rules. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 36(2): 103–120.
Kellert, S.R. (1993). The biological basis for human values of nature, pp. 42–72. In: Kellert S.R. & E.O. Wilson (eds.). The Biophilia Hypothesis. Island Press, Washington DC.
Kovács, E., V. Fabók, Ã. Kalóczkai, & H.P. Hansen (2016). Towards understanding and resolving the conflict related to the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) conservation with participatory management planning. Land Use Policy 54: 158–168.
Manfredo, M.J. (2008). Who Cares About Wildlife? Social Science Concepts for Exploring Human-Wildlife Relationships and Conservation Issues. Springer, New York.
Manfredo, M.J. & A.A. Dayer (2004). Concepts for exploring the social aspects of human-wildlife conflict in a global context. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9: 1–20.
Mann, S. (2014). Sustainable management of biodiversity, South Caucasus: Consultancy on reflecting hunting regulations in the Draft Framework Law on Biodiversity, Mission Report. Working Paper 69/2014. ECO Consulting Group.
McGregor, J. (2005). Crocodile crimes: People versus wildlife and the politics of postcolonial conservation on Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. Geoforum 36(3): 353–369.
McMillan, R.L. (2011). Raptor persecution on a large Perthshire estate: a historical study. Scottish Birds 31(3): 195–205.
Muth, R.M. & J.F. Bowe Jr. (1998). Illegal harvest of renewable natural resources in North America: Toward a typology of the motivations for poaching. Society & Natural Resources 11(1): 9–24.
Natural Earth (2015). Admin 0 – Countries. URL: http://www.naturalearthdata.com/ downloads/50m-cultural-vectors/50m-admin-0-countries-2/ Accessed on 27.06.2015.
NSOG (2014). Population Census 2014. National Statistics Office of Georgia. http://www.geostat.ge/?action=page&p_id=2153&lang=eng. Accessed on 21 March 2017.
NSOG (2017). Regional Statistics. National Statistics Office of Georgia. http://www.geostat.ge/?action=page&p_id=1184&lang=eng. Accessed on 20 November 2017.
Nurse, A. (2011). Policing wildlife: perspectives on criminality in wildlife crime. British Criminology Conference 11: 38–53.
Opdenakker, R. (2006). Advantages and Disadvantages of Four Interview Techniques in Qualitative Research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 7(4): Art. 11; http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0604118
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Sage, London.
Pierce, C.L., M.J. Manfredo & J.J. Vaske (2001). Social science theories in wildlife management, pp. 39-56. In: Decker, D.J., T.L. Brown & W.F. Siemer (eds.). Human Dimensions of Wildlife Management in North America. Wildlife Society, Bethesda.
Redpath, S.M., J. Young, A. Evely, W.M. Adams, W.J. Sutherland, J.A. Whitehouse, A. Amar, R.A. Lambert, J.D.C. Linnell, A. Watt & R.J. Gutiérrez (2013). Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28(2): 100–109.
RSPB (2015). The Illegal Killing of Birds of Prey in Scotland, 1994–2014: A Review. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Scotland, Edinburgh.
Sándor, A., J. Jansen & W.M. Vansteelant (2017). Understanding hunters’ habits and motivations for shooting raptors in the Batumi Raptor-migration bottleneck, Black Sea coast Georgia. Sandgrouse 39(1): 2–15.
Schensul S.L., J.J. Schensul & M.D. LeCompte (1999). Essential Ethnographic Methods: Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek.
Serenari, C. & M.N. Peterson (2016). A socio-political perspective on the illegal take of wildlife in the Southwestern, USA. International Journal of Rural Criminology 3(1): 29-49.
Shaffer, M.L. (1981). Minimum population sizes for species conservation. BioScience 31(2): 131–134.
Schreckenberg, K., I. Camargo, K. Withnall, C. Corrigan, P. Franks, D. Roe, L.M. Scherl & V. Richardson (2010). Social Assessment of Conservation Initiatives: A Review of Rapid Methodologies. (No. 22. IIED). Natural Resource Issues, London.
Smart, J., A. Amar, I.M.W. Sim, B. Etheridge, D. Cameron, G. Christie & J.D. Wilson (2010). Illegal killing slows population recovery of a re-introduced raptor of high conservation concern - The Red Kite (Milvus milvus). Biological Conservation 143(5): 1278–1286.
Solomon, J.N., M.C. Gavin & M.L. Gore (2015). Detecting and understanding non-compliance with conservation rules. Biological Conservation 189: 1–4.
Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 7(17). http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17 Accessed on 07 April 2016.
Stoynov, E. & A. Grozdanov (2010). Re-introduction of Griffon vultures and consequent return of Egyptian vultures in the Kotel Mountains, Bulgaria, pp. 147–150. In: Soorae, P.S. (ed.). Global Re-introduction Perspectives: Additional Case-studies from Around the Globe. UAE: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group, Abu Dhabi.
Stroud, D.A. (2003). The status and legislative protection of birds of prey and their habitats in Europe, pp. 51–84. In: Thompson, D.B.A., S. Redpath, A.H. Fielding, M. Marquiss & C.A. Galbraith (eds.). Birds of Prey in A Changing Environment. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
van Maanen, E., I. Goradze, A. Gavashelishvili & R. Goradze (2001). Trapping and hunting of migratory raptors in western Georgia. Bird Conservation International 11(02): 77–92.
Verhelst, B., J. Jansen & W. Vansteelant (2011). South West Georgia: an important bottleneck for raptor migration during autumn. Ardea 99(2): 137–146.
von Essen, E. & M.P. Allen (2015). Reconsidering illegal hunting as a crime of dissent: implication for justice and deliberative uptake. Criminal Law and Philosophy 11(2): 1–16; http://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-014-9364-8
von Essen, E. & A. Nurse (2016). Illegal hunting special issue. Crime, Law and Social Change 67(4): 377–382; http://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-016-9676-9
White, R. (2008). Crimes against nature: Environmental criminology and ecological justice. Willan Publishers, Portland.
Woodroffe, R., S. Thirgood & A. Rabinowitz (2005). People and wildlife, conflict or co-existence? (No. 9). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Young, J.C., K. Searle, A. Butler, P. Simmons, A.D. Watt & A. Jordan (2016). The role of trust in the resolution of conservation conflicts. Biological Conservation 195: 196–202.