Comparative cross-sectional survey on gastrointestinal parasites of captive, semi-captive, and wild Elephants of Sri Lanka
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Parasites can influence the fitness of individuals particularly of small populations of endangered species. An island-wide, cross sectional, coprological survey was carried out from 03 January to 30 October 2015, to determine the gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of the Sri Lankan Elephant Elephas maximus maximus. Fresh fecal samples from wild, captive and semi-captive elephants were collected and analyzed using a modified salt floatation, Sheather’s sucrose floatation, direct iodine smears, and sedimentation methods. Species identification was done morphologically. Intensity of parasite infections was determined using McMaster technique. A total of 85 fecal samples (wild = 45, semi-captive = 20, captive = 20) were analysed; 58 (68.2%) samples were positive for GI parasites. Overall, helminth infections (60.0%) were more common than protozoan (37.6%) infections (Chi square test, χ2 = 8.499; p < 0.001). In the captive elephants, however, more protozoan infections were observed than helminthes, which could be due to anthelminthic treatment. A significantly higher prevalence of infection was observed in the wild elephants (93.3%) compared to semi-captive elephants (55.0%; χ2 = 13.516; p < 0.001) and captive elephants (25.0%; χ2 =32.289; p < 0.001) but there was no significant difference in the prevalence between captive and semi-captive elephants (χ2 =3.750; p = 0.053). Ten types of GI parasites were observed, nine of which were recorded in wild elephants. Among them the most common infection was strongyles (34.1%) with high intensity (440.1±295.2 EPG). Semi-captive elephants harbored five types of GI parasites, while captive elephants had only three types. One captive elephant at the Temple of the Tooth was infected with the tapeworm Anoplocephala sp. at low intensity of 50 EPG. Some of the GI parasites recorded are highly pathogenic while others are incidental.Â
Article Details
Authors own the copyright to the articles published in JoTT. This is indicated explicitly in each publication. The authors grant permission to the publisher Wildlife Information Liaison Development (WILD) Society to publish the article in the Journal of Threatened Taxa. The authors recognize WILD as the original publisher, and to sell hard copies of the Journal and article to any buyer. JoTT is registered under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY), which allows authors to retain copyright ownership. Under this license the authors allow anyone to download, cite, use the data, modify, reprint, copy and distribute provided the authors and source of publication are credited through appropriate citations (e.g., Son et al. (2016). Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) of the southeastern Truong Son Mountains, Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(7): 8953–8969. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.2785.8.7.8953-8969). Users of the data do not require specific permission from the authors or the publisher.
References
Abeysinghe, K.S., A.N.F. Perera, J. Pastorini, K. Isler, C. Mammides & P. Fernando (2017). Gastrointestinal strongyle infections in captive and wild elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 46: 21–27.
Agatsuma, T., R.P.V.J. Rajapakse, V.Y. Kuruwita, M. Iwagami & R.C. Rajapakse (2004). Molecular taxonomic position of the elephant schistosome, Bivitellobilharzia nairi, newly discovered in Sri Lanka. Parasitology International 53(1): 69–75.
Aviruppola, A.J.M., R.P.V. Rajapakse & R. Rajakaruna (2016). Coprological survey of gastrointestinal parasites of mammals in Dehiwala National Zoological Gardens, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science 45(1): 83–96; http://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v45i1.7367
Bapu, S. (1936). A short note on elephants and a few of their common diseases. Indian Veterinary Journal 13(1): 36–43.
Begon, M. & R.G. Bowers (1995). Beyond host-pathogen dynamics, pp. 478–509. In: Grenfell, B.T. & A.P. Dobson (eds.). Ecology of Infectious Diseases in Natural Populations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bhalerao, G.D. (1933). The trematode parasites of the Indian Elephant, Elephas indicus. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry 3: 103–115.
Chandrashekaran, K. (1992). Prevalence of infectious diseases in elephants in Kerala and their treatment. In: Silas, E.G., M.K. Nair & G. Nirmalan (eds.). The Asian Elephant: Ecology, Biology, Diseases, Conservation and Management. Kerala Agricultural University, India.
Chandrasekharan, K., K. Radhakrishnan, J.V. Cheeran, K.N. Muraleedharan & T. Prabhakaran (1995). Review of the incidence, etiology and control of common diseases of Asian elephants with special reference to Kerala, pp. 439–449. In: Daniel J.C. & H.S. Datye (eds.). A Week with Elephants. International Seminar on the Conservation of Elephant, India.
Chandrasekharan, K., K. Radhakrishnan, J.V. Cheeran, K.N. Muraleedharan & T. Prabhakaran (2009). Review of the incidence, etiology and control of common diseases of Asian elephants with special reference to Kerala, pp. 92–100. In: Ajitkumar G., K.S. Anil & P.C. Alex (eds.). Healthcare Management of Captive Asian Elephants. Kerala Agriculture University, India.
Department of Wildlife Conservation (2015). Ecosystem conservation and management. Electronic version, accessed on 10 September 2015.
Dharmarajan, G. (1999). Epidemiology of helminth parasites in wild and domestic herbivores at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. M.V.Sc Thesis. Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai.
Dissanayake, S.R.B., R. Marasinghe, M. Amararathne, S. Wijeyamohan, P. Wijeyakoon & C. Santiapillai (2012). The First National Survey of Elephants in Sri Lanka, p. 113. A Report Prepared for The Department of Wildlife Conservation. Center for the Study of Asian Elephant at Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka.
Eloff, A.K. & W. van Hoven (1980). Intestinal protozoa of the African Elephant Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach). South African Journal of Zoology 15(2): 83–90.
Fernando, P. (2000). Elephants in Sri Lanka: past, present, and future. Loris 22: 38–44.
Fernando, A. & C.H. Fernando (1961). Report on the helminth parasites of an Asian Elephant which died in Singapore. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 9(4): 99–106.
Fernando, P., J. Jayewardene, T. Prasad, W. Hendavitharana & J. Pastorini (2011). Current status of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 35: 93–103.
Fleischer, R.C., E.A. Perry, K. Muralidharan, E.E. Stevensand & C.M. Wemmer (2001). Phylogeography of the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) based on mitochondrial DNA. Evolution 55(9): 1882–1892.
Fontanarrosa, M.F., D. Vezzan, J. Basabe & D.F. Eiras (2006). An epidemiological study of gastrointestinal parasites of dogs from Southern Greater Buenos Aires (Argentina): age, gender, breed, mixed infections, and seasonal and spatial patterns. Veterinary Parasitology 136: 283–295; http://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.11.012
Fowler, M.E. & S.K. Mikota (2008). Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of Elephants. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK.
Gaur, S.N.S., M.S. Sethi, H.C. Tewari & O. Prakash (1979). A note on the prevalence of helminth parasites in wild and zoo animals in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Animal Science 49(2): 159–161.
Gupta, S.M.R. (1974). A preliminary report on diseases and parasites of zoo animals, birds and reptiles. Indian Journal of Animal Health 13(1): 15–24.
Heinrich, L. (2016). Prevalence and molecular identification of helminths in wild and captive Sri Lankan Elephants, Elephas maximus maximus. Future 19: 21.
Hing, S., N. Othman, S.K. Nathan, M. Fox, M. Fisher & B. Goossens (2013). First parasitological survey of Endangered Bornean elephants Elephas maximus borneensis. Endangered Species Research 21(3): 223–230.
Ihler, C.F., V. Rootwelt, A. Heyeraas & N.I. Dolvik (1995). The prevalence and epidemiology of Anoplocephala perfoliata infection in Norway. Veterinary Research Communications 19(6): 487–494; https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01839337
IUCN (2008). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T7140A12828813.en, Electronic Version accessed on 10 September 2015.
IUCN (2017). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/species/id/6fb47237753f0901b5bb779c6e9e1369/source/tree, Electronic Version accessed on 29th January 2018.
Jayewardene, J. (1994). The Elephant in Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo, 112pp.
Kuruwita, V.Y. & V.W.S.M. Vasanthathilake (1993). Gastro-intestinal [sic] nematode parasites occurring in free-ranging Elephants (Elephas maximus ceylonicus) in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal 40: 15–23.
Leimgruber, P., J.B. Gagnon, C. Wemmer, D.S. Kelly, M.A. Songer & E.R. Selig (2003). Fragmentation of Asia’s remaining wildlands: implications for Asian Elephant conservation. Animal Conservation 6: 347–359; http://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943003003421
Majewska, A.C., W. Kasprzak & A. Werner (1997). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium in mammals housed in Poznan Zoological Garden, Poland. Acta Parasitologica 42: 195–198.
Matsuo, K., S. Hayashi & M. Kamiya (1998). Parasitic infections of Sumatran Elephants in the Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 3: 95–100.
Mbaya, A.W., G.K. Chuchan, F. Ballah & B. Garba (2012). Prevalence of Helminthic Infections among Wild Animals in Yankari Game Reserve, Nigeria. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 60(1): 45–55.
Mbaya, A.W., M. Ogwiji & H.A. Kumshe (2013). Effects of host demography, season and rainfall on the prevalence and parasitic load of gastrointestinal parasites of free-living Elephants (Loxodonta africana) of the Chad Basin National Park, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 16(20): 1152–1158.
Miller, D., B. Jackson, H.S. Riddle, C. Stremme, D. Schmitt & T. Miller (2015). Elephant (Elephas maximus) health and management in Asia: variations in veterinary perspectives. Veterinary Medicine International 2015(1): 2–3; http://doi.org/10.1155/2015/614690
Nilsson, H.O., P. Aleljung, I. Nilsson, T. Tyszkiewicz & T. Wadström (1996). Immunomagnetic bead enrichment and PCR for detection of Helicobacter pylori in human stools. Journal of Microbiological Methods 27(1): 73–79.
Nishanth, B., S.R. Srinivasan, M.G. Jayathangaraj & R. Sridhar (2012). Incidence of endoparasitism in free-ranging elephants of Tamil Nadu State. Tamilnadu Journal of Veterinary & Animal Sciences 8(6): 332–335.
Nunn, C.L., S. Altizer, K.E. Jones & W. Sechrest (2003). Comparative tests of parasite species richness in primates. The American Naturalist 162(5): 597–614; http://doi.org/10.1086/378721
Obanda, V., T. Iwaki, N.M. Mutinda & F. Gakuya (2011). Gastrointestinal parasites and associated pathological lesions in starving free-ranging African Elephants. South African Journal of Wildlife 41: 167–172.
Perera, B.V.P. & R.P.V.J. Rajapakse (2009). Mortality and morbidity of wild Elephants (Elephas maximus maximus) of Sri Lanka, as a result of Liver Flukes (Fasciola jacksoni) infestation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Diseases of Zoo and Wild Animals, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Beekse Bergen, The Netherlands.
Perera, K.U.E., S. Wickramasinghe, B.V.P. Perera, & R.P.V.J Rajapakse (2014). Evaluation of morphometric features and molecular characterization of its 2 and 28s genes of Anoplocephala sp. from a Sri Lankan Elephant. Proceedings of the Peradeniya University International Research Sessions 18: 505; http://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v45i1.7367
Rahman, S.M., A.R. Dey, U.K. Kundu & N. Begum (2014). Investigation of gastrointestinal parasites of herbivores at Dhaka National Zoological Garden of Bangladesh. Journal of Bangladesh Agricultural University 12(1): 79–85.
Samuel, W.M., A.A. Kocan & M.J. Pybus (2001). Sarcoptes scabiei and sarcoptic mange. Parasitic Diseases of Wild Mammals 2: 416–459.
Santiapillai, C. & R. Sukumar (2006). An overview of the status of the Asian Elephant. Gajah 25: 3–8.
Santiapillai, C. & S. Wijeyamohan (2013). The First National Survey of Elephants in Sri Lanka. Current Science 105(2): 153–154.
Saseeendran, P.C., S. Rajendran, H. Subramanian, M. Sasikumar, G. Vivek & K.S. Anil (2003). Incidence of helminthic infection among annually dewormed captive elephants. Zoos Print Journal 19(3): 1422; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.19.3.1422
Scott, M.E. & A. Dobson (1989). The role of parasites in regulating host abundance. Parasitology Today 5: 176–183.
Seneviratna, P. (1955). A checklist of helminths in the Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Ceylon, Peradeniya. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 3: 32–37.
Seneviratna, P. & J.B. Jayasinghe (1968). Some parasites from the Ceylon Elephants (Elephas maximus). Ceylon Veterinary Journal 15: 28.
Soulsby, E.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. Bailliere Tindall, London, 809pp.
Suresh, K., P.C. Choudhuri, K.A. Ajithkumar, M.D. Hafeez & P.A. Hamza (2001). Epidimiological and clinico - therapeutic studies of strongylosis in elephants. Zoos Print Journal 16(7): 539–540;http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.16.7.539-40
Tiwari, S.P. & K.N.P. Rao (1996). Fenbendazole - a useful dewormer for elephants. Zoo’s Print 9(4): 2–5.
Vanitha, V., K. Thiyagesan & N. Baskaran (2011). Social life of captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Southern India: implications for elephant welfare. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 14(1): 42–58.
Varadharajan, A. & A. Kandasamy (2000). A survey of gastro-intestinal parasites of wild animals in captivity in the V.O.C. Park and Mini Zoo, Coimbatore. Zoos’ Print Journal 15(xx): 257–258; http://doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.15.5.257-8
Vidya, T.N.C. & R. Sukumar (2002). The effect of some ecological factors on the intestinal parasite loads of the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) in southern India. Journal of Biosciences 27(5): 521–528; http://doi.org/10.1007/BF02705050
Warren, K., J. Bolton, R. Swan, W. Gaynor & L. Pond (1996). Treatment of gastrointestinal tract impaction of a 2-year-old Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus). Australian Veterinary Journal 73: 37–38; http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb09956.x
Watve, M.G. (1995). Helminth parasites of elephants. Ecological aspects, pp. 289–295. In: Daniel, J.C. & H. Datye (eds.). A Week with Elephants Bombay. Oxford University Press, Bombay Natural History Society, New Delhi.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1991). Basic laboratory methods in medical parasitology. Geneva: World Health Organization. Downloaded 14 March 2015.