Wildlife art and illustration: modeling in ferrocement - some
experiments in Auroville, India
M. Eric Ramanujam 1 & S. Joss
Brooks 2
Pitchandikulam Bioresource Centre / PitchandikulamForest Consultants, Auroville, Tamil Nadu 605101,
India
1 ericramanujamowl@yahoo.com (corresponding author), 2 joss@auroville.org.in
Abstract: The differences between subtractive and
additive three-dimensional sculpting are defined, along with the advantages of modeling. The
various genres are highlighted and applications in the form of case studies
presented as succinctly as possible. The empathy some artists have for particular media is also touched upon.
Keywords:Additive, animalier, animal sculpture, diorama, ferrocement, landscape architecture, modeling,
subtractive.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3975.6239-48
Editor: Stephen D. Nash,
Conservation International, Stony Brook, USA. Date
of publication: 26 August 2014 (online & print)
Manuscript details: Ms # o3975 |
Received 22 March 2014 | Finally accepted 07 July 2014
Citation: Ramanujam, M.E. & S.J. Brooks (2014). Wildlife art and illustration: modeling in ferrocement - some experiments in Auroville,
India.Journal of Threatened Taxa 6(9): 6239–6248; http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3975.6239-48
Copyright: © Ramanujam & Brooks 2014. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and
the source of publication.
Funding: Chennai Rivers
Restoration Trust (CRRT), UNDP, Gulf of MannarBiosphere Trust (GoMBRT) and Chennai Snake Park Trust
(CSPT)
Competing Interest: The authors
declare no competing interests.
Author Details: M. Eric Ramanujam has been a wildlife illustrator for over two decades and has a
background in the advertising industry. Since 1997 he has been involved in full
time conservation and has been part of a team whichundertook wildlife surveys in the Kaliveli region
near Puducherry, Eastern Ghats and Adyar wetland complex in Chennai. His main sphere of
interest is the natural history of the Indian Eagle Owl Bubo bengalensis. S.
Joss Brooks established Pitchandikulam, a
forest community in Auroville, and was one of the
pioneers of re-establishing the indigenous coastal vegetation of the region. He
was the lead consultant to the prestigious Government of Tamil Nadu’s Adyar Poonga wetland restoration
project in Chennai. He is the recipient of the Dr. Triloki Nath Khoshoo Award in 2010
for his contribution to eco-restoration initiatives.
Author Contribution: MER prepared the manuscript with inputs from
SJB.
Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Chennai Rivers Restoration Trust (CRRT), Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust (GoMBRT)
and Chennai Snake Park Trust (CSPT) for giving us these opportunities and
permission to use images of commissioned works.
Unlike subtractive carving, modelingtechniques shape and build up form, and therefore offer the possibility of more
detail, finesse and naturalistic rendition. In addition, there is not the
ever-present threat of failure due to one single mistake
which could irretrievably ruin a piece of work. This is a risk which hampers artistic
expression in stone and wood carving, both involving
subtractive techniques unlike modeling which require
an additive approach.
Modeling in
clay dates back to prehistoric times, for example, the European Bison Bison bonasus bull
and cow in the ‘Les Trois Freres’
(‘Cave of the Three Brothers’ discovered in 1912 by Count Begouenand his three sons) in the Pyrenees dates back to the Mid-Magdalenian Period
(14,000 BC) when the world was still in an ice age that did not end until 8,000
BC (Bibby 1957).
Clay modeling in the ancient world was not as
popular as stone sculpture, as in those times, the
onus was on monumentalisation, rulers and priests
ordering the creation of works proclaiming the power and might of their
civilizations. Nevertheless, some
clay models of animals exist from ancient Egypt, as the Egyptians often
combined features from various creatures to symbolize ideas (Smith &
Simpson 2004).
To the Greeks, who perfected methods for producing maquettesfor representation in stone, the human figure was the principal subject of the
arts. Beginning in the late 7th century BC, Greek sculptors sought
better ways to represent the human figure, from that time onwards influencing
many genres in the world of three-dimensional art (Cook 1986). It is surprising that even during the
Renaissance, when clay became more popular, and as artists were freed from the
burden of the hierarchical order and artists replaced the rigid form with a
beauty that made sculpture more aesthetically pleasing, animal subjects were
very rare (with the exception of horses - and that too with human association)
(Snyder et al. 2004).
Though wax modeling evolved only during the
Middle Ages (5–15th century AD), it too went through a phase
where no individual piece of animal art work seems to
have been commissioned. During the
Renaissance, and in spite of at least one of the old masters (Pisanello, also known as Antonio di PuccioPisano and Antonio di Puccio da Cereto(1395–1455)), who was interested in wildlife
subjects and created bronze medallions with human-animal motifs cast from wax
models, very few actual examples are known.
It was not until the early 19th century that animal-themed
art came into its own and became accepted as a genre
in its own right. Antecedents exist
(how can one not be influenced by animal forms?), but a comparable degree of
concentration on form and detail can be found only in the work of the English
artist George Garrard (1760–1826) and he can
actually be credited with being the first sculptor whose works are principally
of animal subjects (Gilbey 1900). The beginnings of the acceptance of this
genre can be attributed to the works of three sculptors: Antoine-Louis Barye, Christopher Fratin and Alexandre Guionnet, who exhibited
their animal pieces at the Paris Salon in 1831. Their works were
promptly derided by critics, and the derisive term ‘Animalier’
was coined (Anon 2002). Fortunately, at that time, the genre was given a boost by the
much-publicized debate on comparative anatomy between Etienne Geoffroy de Saint Hilaire and his
pupil Georges Cuvier which stimulated widespread interest in zoology, as did
the growth in the popularity of the Jardin des Plantes where several generations of sculptors studied animals
from life. In this sense, Paris could be considered to be the cradle of Animalier sculpture, transforming a derogatory phrase into
a specialty which many sculptors were proud to
practice (Griffiths 2013). Since
that time the genre has become ever more prominent, and such esteemed names
like Edwin Henry Landseer, Rembrandt Bugatti, KennBunn, Bart Walters and Jonathan Kenworthy, have been
associated with it.
Clay, wax and bronze all have their advantages, but at Pitchandikulam we were looking for an alternative as clay
and wax are not suitable for the outdoor public spaces whichcharacterize our facility, and bronze is too expensive. Ferrocement(also known as ferro concrete, reinforced concrete
and steel-reinforced cement) was found to be an ideal choice for our purposes,
since it has relatively good strength and impact resistance. Ferrocement is a mixture of cement and sand applied over an
armature of closely spaced steel rods (called rebar or reba,
which is the acronym for reinforcing bar) over which different sized woven or
expanded steel meshes have been spread. Rebars, also known as reinforcing steel or
reinforcement steel have been used as tension devices in reinforced masonary structures since at least the 18thcentury - an example is the Leaning Tower of Nevyankin Russia (Fredric et al. 1995) which still stands today.
Not only have civil works benefitted from ferrocement,
but also an interesting list of other applications. In fact, the trend can be
accredited to two Frenchmen who used the medium for completely different
purposes. Joseph-Louis Lambot (1814 – 1887) was
an agriculturist who in 1841 started constructing water tanks and troughs using
cement with iron reinforcement in the form of iron rods, chicken wire (invented
in Britain in 1844) and barrel bands. In 1848 he constructed the first boat
using the system which was patented in 1855 and
presented at the Exposition Universelle (World’s
Fair) in Paris in the same year <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph-Louis Lambot>.
Joseph Monier (1823–1906) went on to
develop Lambot’s ideas regarding reinforced
cement. He was a gardener who was
not satisfied with materials used for making flowerpots-clay is brittle and
wood weathered poorly and could also be broken by plant roots. He began making cement pots and tubs,
but these proved not stable enough. In order to strengthen cement containers, he experimented with embedded
iron mesh. He exhibited his
inventions at the Paris Exposition in 1867 and obtained his first patent in the
same year for iron-reinforced troughs for horticulture. Later he obtained more
patents for iron-reinforced cement pipes and basins in 1868, reinforced cement
panels for building facades in 1869, bridges made of iron-reinforced concrete
in 1873 and reinforced concrete beams in 1878 <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph Monier>.
In the 1930’s through the 50’s ferrocementbecame popular, not only for civil and other applications, but also for
artistic rendering – like the ‘dinosaurs in the desert’
<en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocement> and the Cabazon
dinosaurs <www.bigwaste.com/photos/ca/cabazon_dinos>. One of the most famous of these pieces
was a 13.8m long building shaped like an Apatosaurus in Palm Springs,
California that was used “by a new breed of creationist as pulpits to spread
their version of Earth’s origins” (Powers 2005). Claude Bell, the creator of this major
work, will forever go down in history as the one who mattered the most to
artists who work in this medium.
Pitchandikulam too
has experimented extensively in the medium of ferrocementand some instances are discussed below.
Types of models
Life-sized models (Image 1): The
aim here was to create life-sized replicas of living animals and juxtapose them
with natural materials (specifically rocks and vegetation) to give an
impression of these animals in their natural environment.
Scaled-up versions (Image 2):These were created to shock, and were designed to be rather grandiose. They
were primarily used for outdoor public spaces and used to enhance landscape
architecture. We have so far found scaled-down versions to be unsatisfactory as we have had trouble working with detail in
this medium, especially when the subjects become too small. Unlike clay and beeswax, cement is not a
very malleable material and it is sometimes almost impossible to create minute
detail and even if these can be created they are not very durable and wear away
quickly if exposed to the elements.
Combining ferrocement with other materials (Images
3 & 4): We have sometimes found it imperative to
combine fabric, wax and sealant to produce different effects. For example, the use of fabric to
represent fins of fishes was found to be quite convincing. Wax and sealant were used to create
minute details like the tentacles of an anemone and of a Nautilus. However, these pieces cannot be
displayed outdoors, nor can they be touchable by the public, as they are
delicate, and can be easily damaged and hence need protection.
Applications of models
Here we will attempt to give a few case histories of how we used the
models for both entertainment value as well as an adjunct to conservation
education.
Adyar Eco Park, Chennai (Images 5 & 6): This
was a laudable initiative by the Government of Tamil Nadu to develop an
eco-park on a site which had been fundamentally
misused. It was a 58-acre wetland area in the heart of Chennai City which had been degraded by decades of encroachment,
pollution and general public apathy. In February 2007 the Government of Tamil Nadu decided to convert the
area into the site of an eco rehabilitation programme. In consultation with the various
governmental departments who played pivotal roles, the health of the ecosystem
was improved by removing thousands of tons of rubble, pollution stopped from
entering the site, illegal encroachment prevented, alien invasive Prosopsis julifloraand Eichhornia crassipesplants eradicated, and nearly 200,000 plants belonging to 173 species found in
the coastal forests of this part of the country planted, in addition to over
30,000 mangroves belonging to seven species, which are all now self-seeding and
ecologically sustainable. Today the area is a land of verdant green surrounding
the water body and myriad life-forms have
returned. At the last count there
were 91 species of birds, including at times over a hundred spot- billed
pelicans Pelecanus philippensis,
more than 20 painted storks Mycteria leucocephala, and there was an unforgettable day when
the then Deputy Chief Minister witnessed a White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leugastercatch a fish at the western side of the site. This is an excellent example of a state
government’s initiative that can be a role model for the rest of the country
and could help to dispel scepticism among the jaded naturalists inhabiting many
cities in the vicinity of wetlands that once were quite dynamic and
healthy. The park is open only to school children under supervision and it is planned that the
site will be a centre for environmental education and is designed for that
purpose. There is a fully-equipped education building with space for an
auditorium, field laboratory and class rooms. Above all, however, it is envisaged that
the park itself will be the key area, an outdoor classroom where children can
experience nature in the heart of the city.
Art works are liberally spread all over the park in an interactive way,
and among them are both life-sized and scaled-up models of animals in ferrocement. At
the entrance itself one is confronted by a scaled-up model of an Indian Monitor
Lizard Varanus bengalensis,and elsewhere in the park the sculptures include a 3.7m Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosusbasking on the bank of the wetland, two huge Rock Scorpions Heterometrus swammerdami duelling on a raised dais, a 1m high
Starred Tortoise Geochelone elegans in a sand dune garden and a 3m high sculpture
of two Rat Snakes Ptyas mucosusin combat, together with various snakes, bats and other creatures among the
rafters of the education building. All the exhibits have been designed for outdoor public spaces, and the
scaled-up versions can be touched and climbed upon by children, who find them
fascinating.
Marine Interpretation Centre, Kundukal, near Rameswaram (Images 7 & 8): This
was a project undertaken in collaboration with the Gulf of MannarBiosphere Reserve Trust and UNDP. The concept is that the visitor should have the impression of going
underwater when entering the building, while at the same time being informed
about marine life and the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
Reserve. Accordingly, the walls and
ceiling are painted to replicate coral reefs and open waters replete with the
creatures that inhabit them, and various interpretative signageerected. Life-sized models of a
Dugong Dugong dugonwith its young, and a Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas hang from the ceiling. The highlight and centerpieceof the space is an 5.8x2.7 m glass-enclosed diorama of
a coral reef which can be viewed from all sides, with hundreds of associated
life forms constructed out of ferrocement in
combination with other materials.
Chennai Snake Park, Chennai (Images 9 & 10): It was challenging and fascinating working on the models for the
Chennai Snake Park Trust, due to the accuracy concerning form and detail which was necessary, and this required scientific
supervision by qualified herpetologists. The finished product, however, was
most satisfying. The project required the production of six glass-fronted
dioramas representing herps (most of which were not
on display in the park), or facets of behaviour that could not be observed in
the reptiles exhibited there all the time. Examples of the former were species
that were used to the cooler conditions of the Western Ghats, such as the King
Cobra Ophiophagus hannah,
Large-scaled Pit Viper Trimeresurus macrolepis, and Ornate Flying Snake Chrysopelea ornata. Facets of behaviour include an Indian
Rock Python Python molurus,with eggs and young, and a Reticulated Python Python reticulata swallowing an Indian Muntjac Muntiacus muntjak—a real sense of dramatic representation
was required for the latter two.
It may appear that we are promulgating the use of additive techniques
over subtractive stone sculpture, but that is not our intention—in fact,
we will continue to use both media, as they have their individual
characteristics and intrinsic charm, and the subtractive techniques, being more
demanding, are a constant challenge to the skill of the sculptor. Pitchandikulamhas experimented with a variety of media, and a number of artists, and it has
been enlightening to observe how some artists identify with certain media above
others. We know, for example, an
artist who was not very good at painting or drawing, but had an uncanny ability
with modeling, and many of his works adorn the Marine
Interpretation Centre—he has flourished and is doing quite well creating
portrait busts and other such work. McLean (1960), writing about the distinguished wood engraver Joan
Hassall, mentions “she had never tried wood engraving, nor even given a thought
to it, until one day in 1931. At
that time the School of Photo Engraving in Bolt Court, off Fleet Street, had a
wood engraving class which was in danger of being closed due to lack of
students: and Joan Hassall was persuaded by a fellow student to join the class
to keep it open. From the moment
she first handled the graver, it seemed to her like remembering, not learning,
how to use it: she felt the cunning was in her hand already”.
What is this phenomenon? How does it occur? We are far from
understanding it, but a growing number of evolutionary biologists and
anthropologists believe it could be responsible both for our physical and
cultural evolution (Smets 1973; Balter2009). Science still has a long way
to go before it can hope to explain the emotional and subconciousnesscontent that went into the making of a creature like Homo sapiens sapiens. All we can say for now is that visual art is the expression of an
individual’s journey, which is an evocation of feeling that cannot be put into
words (Wilson 2012).
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